History of Europe (1789-1878): Key Concepts and Events

Posted on Jul 17, 2026 in History

History of Europe (1789-1878)

This document provides a structured summary of the History of Europe (1789-1878), covering key events and concepts from standard syllabi.

Section A: 15 Questions (2 Marks)

  • 1. Define Enlightenment: A movement stressing human reason, science, and logic over blind faith and tradition.
  • 2. Causes of the French Revolution: An unfair social system and national bankruptcy due to war and royal luxury.
  • 3. Consequences of the July Revolution (1830): Ended Charles X’s rule and established Louis Philippe’s “bourgeois monarchy.”
  • 4. The Third Coalition: Formed in 1805 by Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Sweden against Napoleon.
  • 5. Reign of Terror: A violent period (1793-1794) led by Robespierre involving mass executions.
  • 6. Continental System: Napoleon’s economic blockade intended to destroy the British economy.
  • 7. Concert of Europe: A post-1815 agreement among major powers to maintain peace and prevent revolution.
  • 8. Klemens von Metternich: The Austrian Chancellor who dominated European politics (1815-1848) as a conservative leader.
  • 9. Divine Right Theory: The belief that kings derive authority directly from God, making them unaccountable to the people.
  • 10. The Carlists: A 19th-century Spanish conservative group supporting traditional monarchy and Catholic power.
  • 11. October Diploma: An 1860 Austrian constitution attempting to reform the empire by empowering noble landlords.
  • 12. Italian Unification Leaders: Camillo di Cavour (political mastermind) and Giuseppe Garibaldi (military leader).
  • 13. Holy Alliance: An 1815 pact between Russia, Austria, and Prussia used to suppress democratic rebellions.
  • 14. Zollverein: An 1834 German customs union led by Prussia that facilitated economic and political unity.
  • 15. Fall of the Bastille: The July 14, 1789, event symbolizing the power of the people against the monarchy.

Section B: 15 Questions (4 Marks)

  • 1. Social Structure: Divided into three Estates; the Third Estate bore the tax burden despite having no political power.
  • 2. Louis Philippe: Chosen as a “Citizen King” in 1830 to balance radical and royalist interests.
  • 3. Metternich’s Influence: Architect of the Congress of Vienna; used censorship and secret police to maintain order.
  • 4. Honest Broker: Otto von Bismarck, who mediated the 1878 Congress of Berlin to maintain European peace.
  • 5. The Carlists: Traditionalists who fought civil wars in Spain to oppose liberal reforms and female succession.
  • 6. October Diploma: An unsuccessful attempt by Franz Joseph to federalize Austria and appease ethnic groups.
  • 7. Divine Right Theory: A doctrine justifying absolute monarchy that was rejected during the Enlightenment.
  • 8. Prussian Leadership: Prussia led German unification due to its industrial strength, military, and the Zollverein.
  • 9. Russian Classes: A society dominated by the Tsar and nobles, with 80% of the population living as serfs.
  • 10. Napoleonic Code: Established legal equality and property rights, though it restricted women’s rights.
  • 11. 1848 Revolutions: Driven by economic hardship, middle-class political exclusion, and rising nationalism.
  • 12. Mazzini’s Role: The “Heart” of Italian unification who inspired nationalism through his “Young Italy” society.
  • 13. Emancipation of Serfs (1861): Tsar Alexander II freed serfs, though the reform left many peasants in debt.
  • 14. Consequences of 1848: Weakened absolute monarchy and accelerated the push for national unification.
  • 15. Industrial Revolution: Shifted society to urban factory life, creating the bourgeoisie and proletariat classes.

Section C: 10 Questions (6 Marks)

  • 1. Liberalism in Spain: The 1812 Constitution established a constitutional monarchy and limited church power.
  • 2. Contractual Theory: Argues that government is a contract; if the state fails to protect rights, the people may revolt.
  • 3. Congress of Vienna: Focused on the “Balance of Power” and “Legitimacy” to prevent future wars.
  • 4. Enlightenment Impact: Thinkers like Rousseau and Montesquieu provided the intellectual foundation for the French Revolution.
  • 5. February Revolution (1848): Caused by political corruption and economic depression; led to the Second French Republic.
  • 6. Continental System: Napoleon’s failed attempt to isolate Britain economically, which eventually led to his downfall.
  • 7. Failure of the Concert of Europe: Collapsed due to conflicting national interests and the rise of nationalism.
  • 8. Cavour’s Role: Used diplomacy and modernization to unify Italy under Piedmont-Sardinia.
  • 9. Blood and Iron: Bismarck’s policy of using military force and industrial power to unify Germany.
  • 10. Crimean War: Exposed Russian weakness and ended the era of the Concert of Europe.

Section D: 3 Questions (10 Marks)

  • 1. Bismarck as Founder: Used Realpolitik and three calculated wars to forge the German Empire.
  • 2. July Revolution (1830): A reaction against Charles X’s attempt to restore absolute monarchy.
  • 3. Impact of 1789: Spread the ideals of liberty, equality, and nationalism, permanently changing European politics.