Understanding Scientific Knowledge and Research
The Science of Knowledge
What is Science?
Science comes from the Latin verb scire (to know). Scientific knowledge is the theoretical and systematic organization of knowledge about the world, explaining observed phenomena. It is rigorous, critical, and often has practical applications.
Types of Sciences
Sciences can be broadly categorized as:
- Formal Sciences: Based on abstract ideals and deduction (e.g., logic, mathematics).
- Empirical/Experimental Sciences: Based on experience and observation. These are further divided into:
- Natural Sciences: Study the natural world (e.g., physics, chemistry, biology, geology, astronomy).
- Social Sciences: Study human beings and society (e.g., sociology, psychology, economics, history).
Sciences can also be classified as:
- Basic Sciences: Establish theoretical foundations (e.g., math, physics, chemistry, biology).
- Applied Sciences: Use knowledge from basic sciences for practical applications (e.g., architecture, medicine, pharmacy).
Technoscience
Technoscience refers to the interplay between theoretical scientific disciplines, techniques, and their applications.
Epistemology: The Study of Knowledge
Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that studies knowledge itself, its methods, and limitations. It explores how we know what we know.
Rationalism vs. Empiricism
- Rationalism: Argues that knowledge is based on reason (e.g., Descartes, Leibniz, Pascal).
- Empiricism: Believes that knowledge comes from empirical facts and experience (e.g., Bacon, Locke, Hume).
Types of Knowledge
- Theoretical Knowledge: Provides explanatory and predictive descriptions.
- Practical Knowledge: Involves acting on the world based on knowledge.
Perspectives on Knowledge
- Dogmatism: Supports certain and universal knowledge.
- Skepticism: Denies knowledge due to the imperfection of the senses.
- Subjectivism: Believes truth depends on the individual.
- Cultural Relativism: Emphasizes the influence of culture, social group, and history on perception.
- Pragmatism: Links knowledge to its practical use.
- Critical Thinking: Views knowledge as subject to constant revision.
- Realism: Argues that reality exists independently.
- Idealism: Believes reality is dependent on the mind.
Scientific Methods
Deduction and Induction
- Deduction: Reasoning from general principles to specific conclusions.
- Induction: Reasoning from specific observations to general conclusions.
Hypothetic-Deductive Method
This method involves formulating hypotheses and testing them through deduction and observation.
Verification and Falsification
- Verification: Confirming the truth of a hypothesis.
- Falsification (Karl Popper): Attempting to prove a hypothesis false. If it cannot be falsified, it is considered true.
Scientific Research
Scientific research is based on doubt, self-criticism, and systematic investigation. It is empirical, inductive, deductive, analytical, synthetic, selective, and precise.
The Research Process
- Documentation
- Investigation
- Filing of Results
Experiments
Experiments are repeatable procedures with controlled variables that test hypotheses.
Variables
Variables are aspects of a process that can be modified. These include dependent and independent variables.
Pseudoscience
Pseudoscience uses seemingly scientific language but lacks empirical evidence, reproducible results, and credible researchers. It often appeals to authority, ancient cultures, or hidden knowledge for profit or deception.