Understanding Imperialism: Causes and Historical Context
Imperialism and Its Causes: Imperialism is defined as the nineteenth-century expansion of a state beyond its borders to dominate other areas, which are called colonies, and are subjected to and exploited by a power known as the metropolis. This process establishes a political dependency of the colonies, which are used to exploit their natural and human resources. The causes of this process are several:
- Economics: The industrialization process generated new needs for the functioning of the capitalist model, seeking new markets for the disposal of its production and access to raw materials and energy sources for their industries.
- Social Studies: The European demographic expansion led to the emigration of millions of people to overseas territories in search of new economic opportunities.
- Governance: There was a growing rivalry between different powers seeking national prestige through the possession of territory. This rivalry led to the occupation of some territories to prevent the spread of the enemy.
- Ideological: The nationalism of the time extolled national values. Some states, like England, believed in the superiority of the white race, justifying imperialism as a civilizing mission for indigenous peoples.
Germany: After the unification of Germany, it rapidly became an industrial power. Otto von Bismarck, known as the Iron Chancellor, practiced an authoritarian government and the “reason of state” for 20 years. The demographics, education, economics, and science made it possible for German economic supremacy in Europe, although its trade was weaker than that of England. The political system is federal, not liberal, and consists of two chambers: The Bundesrat (Federal Council) and the Reichstag (the deputies). It was dominated by conservative forces but also included the German Socialist Party and the Catholic Center.
Bismarck’s foreign policy sought to maintain political stability in Europe to arbitrate in Germany. On the other hand, he tried to avoid French revenge after the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. To achieve these two goals, he conducted secret diplomacy through a series of partnerships known as the three alliances or Bismarckian system:
- Formed by the entente of the three emperors, consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia during the Balkan War.
- Consisting of the duplicitous alliance between Austria and Germany against Russia and the Triple Alliance, which included Italy. He signed a neutrality agreement between Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Germany.
- Renewed the Triple Alliance and provided the German Reinsurance Treaty with Russia.
Bismarck established the rule of economic and political unity and created a large army but left the chancellery due to problems with the new Kaiser (Wilhelm I), who initiated a policy of tension due to his expansionist ambitions (Weltpolitik).
United Kingdom: During the reign of Victoria I, from 1837 to 1901, England became the world hegemon. It owned the first merchant fleet in the world, and its advanced industry, along with the open-door policy, made London the world financial center during this golden age known as the Victorian period. His political and social structure was gradually modernized, expanding the electoral system.
The political parties that emerged were the Tories, a conservative party led by Disraeli, who crowned Queen Victoria as Empress of India, and the Whigs, a liberal party led by Gladstone, the architect of major reforms such as extending the vote, democratizing education, and the suffrage movement (i.e., allowing women to vote). The Labor Party increasingly gained influence. The problem in Ireland was exacerbated until, in 1921, autonomy was granted to the Republic of Ireland, but it remained under Ulster.
The Outbreak of Conflict: In 1914, a new crisis in the Balkans occurred. On June 28, the Austrian heir to the throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia, by a Bosnian student related to the Serbs. Supported by Germany, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28. The previously established partnerships were put to the test. Russia sided with Serbia and declared war on Austria. Germany’s ally, Austria, in turn, declared war on Russia and France. The German army invaded Belgium, which remained neutral, following the Schlieffen Plan, which caused Britain to declare war on Austria and Germany, aligning with Russia and France. In this way, the Serbian-Austrian confrontation turned into a war in Europe.
War Movements: Trench Warfare (1914-1916): The war began in August 1914. Germany and Austria-Hungary had powerful armies and easy communication, which was a significant advantage over their enemies, who were geographically dispersed. Furthermore, they were required to maintain a war on two fronts: a Franco-British (Western) and a Russian (Eastern). The German plan was to invade France through Belgium and Luxembourg. France initially opposed with much resistance but later achieved a victory in the Battle of the Marne, halting the German advance. This victory stabilized the front, which became immobilized from the Swiss border up to the North Sea. On the eastern front, the advancing German army was larger but not enough to defeat the Russians (Battle of Tannenberg). The trench warfare was hard and long, eventually becoming the symbol of the First World War. On the western front, the Germans tried to advance but were disrupted in the Battle of Verdun in 1916. The Allies attempted a Somme offensive but were unsuccessful. On the eastern front, the Austro-German offensive recaptured the territories conquered in Galicia, Russian Poland, and Lithuania.
The Crisis of 1917 to End the War: The outbreak of the Russian Revolution in 1917 and the rise of the Bolsheviks to power caused a significant change in the situation. Russia left the war in 1918 after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed with the Central Powers, ceding Ukraine, Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Belarus. That same year also saw the final outcome on the Eastern Front, where the Allies (France, Britain, and Italy) achieved successive defeats against the Turks and Austrians, seeking an armistice, while riots broke out throughout Austria, both social and nationalist. On the western front, although the Germans continued their offensive, they were defeated again in the Marne area, forcing them to start withdrawing. Wilhelm abdicated, proclaimed the republic, and the new government signed the armistice.
Policy Implications and Territorial Changes: Policies:
- The traditional dynasties were dethroned (Habsburg, Romanov).
- Democracy gained ground.
- Universal male suffrage was introduced in most of Europe, and women’s voting rights were recognized in some countries.
Territorial Changes:
- Dissolution of the great empires.
- Emergence of new countries: Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Yugoslavia (Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, and Montenegro), Czechoslovakia (Czech Republic and Slovakia), Hungary.