Understanding Collective Action and Social Movements
Collective Action
Definition
Action that takes place in groups and diverges from the social norms of the situation.
Theories of Collective Action
Convergence Theory
Collective action happens when people with similar ideas and tendencies gather in the same place.
Contagion Theory
Collective action arises because of people’s tendency to conform to the behavior of others in close contact.
Emergent Norm Theory
Emphasizes the influence of key figures in promoting particular norms.
Social Movements
Definition
Collective behavior that is purposeful, organized, and institutionalized but not ritualized.
Types of Social Movements
Alternative Social Movements
Seek limited societal change and often target a narrow group of people.
Redemptive Social Movements
Target specific groups but advocate for more radical social change.
Reformative Social Movements
Advocate for limited social change across an entire society.
Revolutionary Social Movements
Advocate the radical reorganization of society.
Models of Social Movements
Classical Model
Based on structural weakness in society resulting in the psychological disruption of individuals.
Resource-Mobilization Theory
Emphasizes political context and goals; social movements are unlikely to emerge without necessary resources.
Political Process Model
Focuses on the structure of political opportunities. Favorable opportunities increase the chances of a social movement’s success.
Stages of Social Movements
Emergence
The social problem being addressed is first identified.
Coalescence
Resources are mobilized (concrete action is taken) around the problems outlined in the first stage.
Routinization/Institutionalization
The movement is institutionalized, and a formal structure develops to promote the cause.
Social Movement Organizations (SMOs)
Definition
A group developed to recruit new members and coordinate participation in a social movement. SMOs raise money, clarify goals, and structure participation.
Grassroots Organization
Relies on high levels of community-based participation to promote social change. Lacks a hierarchical structure and works through existing political structures.
Social Relations and Structures
Premodernity
Social relations characterized by concentric circles of social affiliation, low division of labor, undeveloped technology, and traditional social norms.
Modernity
Social relations characterized by rationality, bureaucratization, objectivity, and individuality created by nonconcentric, overlapping group affiliations.
Postmodernity
Social relations characterized by questioning progress and history, replacing narrative with pastiche, and multiple, potentially conflicting identities from disjointed affiliations.
Health and Illness
Medicalization
The process by which problems or issues not traditionally seen as medical become framed as such.
Sick Role
Parsons’ functionalist concept describing the social rights and obligations of a sick person.
Morbidity
Illness in a general sense.
Mortality
Death.
Religion
Civil Religion
A set of sacred beliefs so commonly accepted that it becomes part of the national culture.
Religion
A unified system of beliefs, traditions, and practices based on the conception of the sacred.
Sacred
Holy things meant for special use. Elements beyond everyday life that inspire awe, respect, and fear. Establish prescriptive and proscriptive norms.
Profane
The things of everyday life; commonplace.
Types of Religious Beliefs
Theism
The worship of a god or gods.
Monotheism
The worship of one god (e.g., Christianity, Islam, Judaism).
Ethicalism
Adherence to certain principles to lead a moral life.
Animism
The belief that spirits are part of the natural world.
Religious Organizations
Denominations
Large, organized religions not officially linked with the state. Share the same faith and are governed under one administrative umbrella.
Congregations
Groups of people who gather together, especially for worship.
Secularism
A general movement away from religion toward a rational, scientific orientation, often adopted by industrialized nations through the separation of church and state.
Sociological Perspectives on Religion
Karl Marx
Religion is a means of social stratification, drugging the masses into submission and keeping them quiet as they labor. Faith keeps the downtrodden in their places.
Max Weber
Protestant Ethic: Followers of the Protestant Reformation emphasized a disciplined work ethic, this-worldly concerns, and a rational orientation for life. This is the spirit of capitalism, where hard work is necessary for success and salvation.
Emile Durkheim
People conform to religious rules and yield to society’s moral authority. Religion is a collective act that perpetuates social unity by strengthening the collective conscience.
Religious Pluralism
The presence of numerous, distinct religious groups in one society. Can be viewed negatively as weakening the credibility of any one church or positively as a way for diverse religions to engage with one another and build community.
Sacred Canopy
The entire set of religious norms, symbols, and beliefs that express the feeling that life is worth living and that reality is meaningful, not random chaos.
Evangelicals
Members of any denomination distinguished by four main beliefs:
- The Bible is without error.
- Salvation comes only through belief in Jesus Christ.
- Personal conversion is the only path to salvation.
- Others must be converted.
Fundamentalists
Followers of the Bible who literally interpret its meaning.
Religious Experience
Feeling or perception of being in direct contact with ultimate reality or of being overcome with religious emotion.
Religious Beliefs
Statements to which members of a particular religion adhere.
Religious Rituals
Practices required or expected of members of a faith.
Reflexive Spirituality
A contemporary movement that encourages followers to look to religion for meaning, wisdom, and profound thought rather than for absolute truths about how the world works.
Power and Authority
Milgram Experiment
A 1961 experiment by Stanley Milgram to see how far ordinary people would go to obey a scientific authority figure.
Power
The ability to carry out one’s own will despite resistance.
Domination
The probability that a command with specific content will be obeyed by a given group of people.
State
As defined by Weber, “a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.”
Coercion
The use of force to get others to do what you want.
Example of Coercion
A bully pushes a younger student and threatens to beat him up if he does not hand over his lunch money.
Paradox of Authority
Although the state’s authority derives from the implicit threat of physical force, resorting to coercion strips the state of all legitimate authority.
International State System
A system in which each state is recognized as territorially sovereign by fellow states.
Welfare State
A system in which the state is responsible for the well-being of its citizens.
Citizenship Rights
The rights guaranteed to each law-abiding citizen in a nation-state.
Civil Rights
Guarantee personal freedom from interference, including freedom of speech and the right to travel freely.
Political Rights
Guarantee the ability to participate in politics, including the right to vote and hold office.
Social Rights
Guarantee protection by the state.
Soft Power
Power attained through cultural attractiveness rather than the threat of coercive action (hard power).
Political Systems
Democracy
Power theoretically lies with the people; citizens can vote, speak freely, and participate as legal equals in social life.
Dictatorship
Restricts the right to political participation to a small group or a single individual.
Game Theory
The study of strategic decisions under conditions of uncertainty and interdependence.
Collective Action Problem
The difficulty in organizing large groups because of the tendency of some individuals to freeload or slack off.
Political Party
An organization that seeks to gain power in government by backing candidates for office who subscribe to its political ideals.
Interest Group
An organization that seeks to gain power and influence policy without direct election or appointment to office.
Political Participation
Activity that has the intent or effect of influencing government action.
Example of the Second Dimension of Power
Believing your supervisor is a bad team leader but not saying anything because you’re sure it won’t change anything and could even result in your removal from the project.
Education
Education
The process through which academic, social, and cultural ideas and tools are developed.
Schooling
Formal instruction under the direction of specially trained teachers.
Human Capital
The knowledge and skills that make someone more productive and bankable.
Broad Functions of Education
Primary Schooling
Teaches basic language and math skills.
Secondary Schooling
Expands basic skills and transmits social values and norms, including gender role socialization and the use of complex technology.
Hidden Curriculum
The nonacademic and less overt socialization functions of education. Teaches punctuality, compliance, discipline, and rewards socially appropriate behavior.
Social Capital
The information, knowledge, and connections that help individuals enter, gain power in, or leverage social networks. Similar to human capital.
Tracking
Dividing students into different groups by ability or future plans.
Other Functions of Education
- Cultural innovation
- Social integration
- Social placement
Latent Functions of Education
- Child care providers
- Engages kids at a young age
- Sets the stage for networking
Conflict Theory of Education
- Social control
- Middle-class bias
- School tracking
- Inequality among schools
Credentialism
An overemphasis on credentials for signaling social status or qualifications for a job.
Affirmative Action
Policies that grant preferential treatment to particular subgroups (typically women and historically disadvantaged racial minorities).
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
An individual’s position in a stratified society. Higher class corresponds to greater educational opportunities and eventual success.
Cultural Capital
Symbolic and interactional resources that people use to their advantage. Your background gives you an advantage or disadvantage.
Stereotype Threat
When members of a negatively stereotyped group fear they may confirm those stereotypes, potentially contributing to black underachievement.
Family
Endogamy
Marriage to someone within one’s social group.
Exogamy
Marriage to someone outside one’s social group.
Monogamy
Having one sexual partner or spouse at a time.
Polygamy
Having more than one sexual partner or spouse at a time.
Polyandry
Having multiple husbands simultaneously.
Polygyny
Having multiple wives simultaneously.
Nuclear Family
A father, a mother, and their children.
Extended Family
Kin networks that extend outside the nuclear family. Can be intergenerational.
Serial Monogamy
Having several spouses in one’s lifetime but only one spouse at a time.
Family
A set of people related by blood, marriage, or some other agreed-upon relationship.
Cohabitation
Living together in an intimate relationship without formal legal or religious sanctioning.
Kinship Network
Strings of relationships between people related by blood and marriage.
Cult of Domesticity
The notion that true womanhood centers on domestic responsibility and child rearing.
Second Shift
Women’s responsibility for housework and child care in addition to out-of-house jobs.