The Transformation of Europe: From Old Regime to Enlightenment
Characteristics of the Old Regime
The Old Regime was characterized by the following traits:
Demographics
Birth and mortality rates were high.
Economy
The main activity was traditional agriculture, and productivity was low. Crafts were controlled by guilds. Domestic trade was limited due to the poor conditions of land transport.
Society
Society was structured by Estates. The nobility and clergy held privileges, while the Third Estate (burghers and peasants) was the only group that paid taxes.
Policy
From the 17th century onward, the dominant political system was Absolute Monarchy.
Culture
The emerging mindset favored critical thinking, research, and experimentation, challenging traditional views.
Changes in the Old Regime (18th Century)
The 18th century brought significant transformations to Europe:
Economy
The European economy experienced an upswing. Agriculture remained the dominant activity; the most widely cultivated crops were cereals, maize, and potato. Handicraft production remained dominated by guilds. Domestic trade intensified due to improved terrestrial and river communications. River trade was largely controlled by British merchants.
Population and Society
The European population increased during the 18th century. Reasons included improving nutrition, hygiene, and medicine. Society maintained the estates system, but underwent transformations:
- The nobility lost some political influence.
- The clergy maintained its enormous social influence, though pressured by monarchs and intellectuals.
- The Bourgeoisie continued to rise socially. The petty bourgeoisie was made up of officials, urban merchants, and artisans. Most peasants lived in poverty.
The Enlightenment Movement
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that surged in France and spread throughout Europe and America in the 18th century. Its ideology was reflected in the Encyclopedia, which summarized all the knowledge of its era.
Characteristics of the Enlightenment
- Development of Anthropocentrism (focus on humanity).
- Confidence in human reason.
- Faith in progress, which fostered optimism.
- Focus on achieving happiness in this world.
Core Tenets of Enlightenment Thought
Enlightenment thought was highly significant, criticizing the foundations of the Old Regime and impacting subsequent reforms:
Society
The Old Regime society should be changed to an egalitarian society, without privileges for the nobility.
Government
Enlightened thinkers defended a form of government that included the participation of citizens.
Religion
Traditional religious beliefs were challenged.
Economic System
The economic system of the early 17th century was rejected. They advocated for Physiocracy:
- Agriculture was considered the true source of wealth.
- Industry and trade were secondary activities.
- The economy should operate freely (laissez-faire), without government intervention.
- Protectionism laws that hindered international trade were rejected.
Enlightened Despotism
This political system operated under the motto: “Everything for the people, but without the people.” Rulers governed for the benefit of the populace but without their direct input or opinion. Reforms included:
Politics
Centralization of the State.
Society
Measures such as the abolition of serfdom and the decline of the privileges of the nobility were implemented.
Agriculture and Economy
Introduction of new crops, reforestation of lands, and expansion of irrigated areas.
Culture
Academies and scientific institutions were created.
Religion
Religious tolerance was proclaimed, but the power of the clergy and the papacy was also limited.
Representatives: Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine II of Russia, Carlos III of Spain, and Joseph II of Austria.
Nature was considered the principle of good.