The Spanish Restoration and the Cuban War of Independence
The Spanish Restoration (1874-1902)
Return of the Bourbon Monarchy
Following the Republic of 1874, the idea of restoring the Bourbon monarchy gained traction. General Martínez Campos’s actions in Sagunto (December 29, 1874) paved the way for Alfonso XII, son of Isabel II, to ascend the throne. This restoration was orchestrated by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, a key figure in the Alfonsino movement. Alfonso XII’s Manifesto of Sandhurst (December 1, 1874) outlined his commitment to liberal principles.
Stages of the Restoration
The Restoration can be divided into three stages:
- 1874-1885: The reign of Alfonso XII.
- 1885-1902: The regency of Queen Maria Christina of Austria.
- 1902 onward: The reign of Alfonso XIII.
The 1876 Constitution
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, a historian and liberal politician, spearheaded the development of a new political system. A constitutional assembly drafted a constitution, which was approved by parliament on February 15, 1876. This constitution enshrined individual rights such as personal security, freedom of expression, and freedom of assembly. Sovereignty was shared between the King and the Cortes (parliament). The state was declared confessional, with Catholicism as the official religion, although freedom of worship was established. The Cortes was divided into two chambers: the Congress and the Senate.
Political Parties and the Turnismo System
Two main political parties emerged: the Liberal Conservative Party, led by Cánovas del Castillo, and the Liberal Party, led by Sagasta. The system was characterized by Turnismo, where the two parties alternated in power through mutual agreement. Elections were often manipulated through various means, including vote-buying and coercion.
The Crisis of ’98 and the Loss of Cuba
The Cuban War of Independence
During the Restoration, Spain faced international isolation and the rise of American power. The most significant events of Maria Cristina’s regency revolved around the last Spanish colonies: Cuba and the Philippines. The Cuban War of Independence began on September 24, 1895. Key factors contributing to the war included:
- The unfulfilled promises of the Zanjón Agreement (1878).
- Growing Cuban patriotism, fueled by US support.
- Spain’s mismanagement of Cuban resources and trade.
José Martí led the Cuban uprising. Cánovas del Castillo sent General Martínez Campos to quell the rebellion, but he was replaced by General Valeriano Weyler, who implemented harsh tactics. US President William McKinley protested Weyler’s methods. The sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor on April 20, 1898, provided the pretext for the US to declare war on Spain.
The Spanish-American War and the Treaty of Paris
Initial Spanish enthusiasm for the war quickly waned as the US forces proved superior. The Spanish fleet was destroyed in both the Pacific and the Caribbean. The Treaty of Paris, signed in December 1898, marked the end of the war. Spain recognized Cuban independence and ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the United States. Other islands were sold to Germany.
The Generation of ’98
The loss of these colonies led to widespread discontent and a national crisis of conscience. This gave rise to the Generation of ’98, a group of writers who expressed their frustration with the decline of the Spanish Empire. The disaster of ’98 exposed the weaknesses of the Restoration system and highlighted the need for societal and political regeneration.