The Spanish Empire: Exploration, Institutions, and Control
Integration of the Islands and the Approach to Portugal
From the fifteenth century onward, a series of maritime expeditions expanded the world due to:
- European business needs: To find new trade routes and access existing ones in the East (for spices and fabrics) and Africa (for gold).
- The Renaissance mindset: Which fostered a spirit of adventure and a desire to explore new territories.
- Scientific and technical discoveries: Which facilitated navigation.
The Portuguese were the first to venture out. Throughout the 15th century, they occupied areas like the stronghold of Ceuta and made significant discoveries, including Madeira and the Azores Islands.
They then explored the African coast southward, reaching the Cape Verde Islands and the Gulf of Guinea. They established contact with Sudan, where they began to obtain gold, ivory, and slaves. Later, Bartolomeu Dias reached the southern tip of Africa, which he named the Cape of Torments due to the destruction of his fleet, forcing his return. Subsequently, Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape, renaming it the Cape of Good Hope. He reached the Indian Ocean, founded the colony of Mozambique, and from there, reached India, establishing Calicut and Goa. Further expeditions led them to the Spice Islands (Indonesia).
In the fifteenth century, the Catholic Monarchs of Spain also initiated a conquest of North Africa. Initially, they occupied the coasts of Cadiz and Huelva, but later expanded into Guinea, increasing rivalry with Portugal. To avert war, Castile and Portugal signed the Treaty of Alcaçovas (1479). Castile agreed to withdraw from the African route, and Portugal recognized Castile’s claim to the Canary Islands, which had been conquered by French nobleman (vassals of King Henry III of Castile) in 1402. The Canaries gained importance as a stopover for Columbus on his voyages to America.
Government Institutions
The nation-state’s political project required an authoritarian monarchy and a strategy to control all social strata:
Control of the Clergy
The monarchy secured a privilege called royal patronage from the Vatican. Cardinal Francisco de Cisneros, the Queen’s confessor, was appointed Primate of Spain and assumed regency upon Ferdinand’s death. To control the military orders, Ferdinand became Master of Calatrava, Montesa, and Alcantara. His grandson later became Master of Santiago, stripping the orders of their assets, which were transferred to the Crown and the royal treasury. This granted the monarchy full authority over the Inquisition.
Control of the Nobility
Kings offered nobles political positions as advisors, military leaders, and diplomats, enticing them to leave their castles and reside near the royal court. These positions were well-paid and prestigious, leading to minimal rebellion. The monarchy effectively monitored the nobility without diminishing their economic and social power.
Control of the Commoners
As the sole taxpayers, the commoners were granted privileges to encourage their contribution. The Mesta, a powerful sheepherders’ guild, was reinforced due to the significant revenue generated from wool sales. In Aragon, Ferdinand sided with the peasants against the feudal lords, signing the Sentence of Guadalupe, which revoked the nobles’ rights. To promote the bourgeoisie, the monarchy supported fairs, markets, and trade. Consulates were established in the Crown of Aragon to ensure the quality and price of Spanish products in major Mediterranean cities. However, limited support was provided to the handicraft industry, leading to the creation of the Holy Brotherhood to combat banditry.
To implement these strategies, various governing institutions were established:
Authoritarian Monarchy
Imposed its political project on all elements of the state.
Viceroyalties
Represented the king in realms where he couldn’t directly govern or control. Each viceroyalty was headed by a viceroy, who acted as the king’s representative, extending royal power throughout the realms and American possessions.
The Courts
Continued to operate, but their power was diminished as the Kings convened them infrequently.
Standing Army of Mercenaries
Trained and maintained with funds from taxes and wealth expropriated from the military orders. This army allowed the Kings to operate independently of the nobility.
Aldermen
Royal officials responsible for governing municipalities.
To ensure the functioning of these institutions, various government bodies were created:
- Royal Councils: Formed the government and were created as needed, serving in an advisory capacity. The first councils established were those of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and the Inquisition.
- Hearings (Audiencias): Bodies responsible for the administration of justice. Two were created in Castile: Valladolid and Granada.
- Accounting Office of Finance: Responsible for tax collection.
- Accounts Accounts and Results: Responsible for accounting.