The Spanish Civil War: From Republic to Dictatorship

Posted on Jun 15, 2024 in History

The Nationalist Rebels: Creation of a Military Dictatorship

The army gained control of areas where the coup had triumphed. All efforts were aimed at achieving military victory and organizing a new fascist state that would end democracy and the Republic’s reform legislation. After some hesitation about who should lead the initiative, the Junta Nacional de Defensa (the first institution of the new state) appointed Francisco Franco as head of the government. In January 1938, the first rebel government was created in Burgos, which became the provisional capital of the new state. The new government’s main political measures were:

  • Prohibition of parties
  • The annulment of the Constitution and all statutes of autonomy
  • A return to Catholicism as the official state religion
  • The dismantling of all Republican reforms

FET y de las JONS, which united Falangists, traditionalists, and Carlists, became the only party, with Franco as the national leader. The new party adopted the Carlist red beret and the Falangist blue shirt as the uniform and used the fascist salute.

The Republicans: The Social Revolution

The Republic was supported by large sectors of the population with different ideologies: moderate Republicans, reformists, socialists, left-wing nationalists, communists, and anarchists. But the most radical left-wing sector, which prevented the military coup from succeeding in many parts of Spain in the first few weeks of the Civil War, wanted to start a social revolution. Those loyal to the Republic argued about the need to prepare for war and the need to continue the revolutionary process. To impose a new revolutionary order, they created workers’ committees made up of representatives of the anti-fascist forces that were leading the war effort and civilians in the rearguard. The workers’ committees occupied and collectivized factories and confiscated large estates to distribute to peasants.

There was also anticlerical violence. Priests were harassed, and religious demonstrations were considered anti-revolutionary. Every aristocratic, bourgeois, and religious symbol was persecuted and could lead to imprisonment or death. To control the revolutionary situation, a new government was formed between September and November 1936. It was led by socialist Largo Caballero, who tried to end the uncontrolled repression, channel the revolutionary process, and maintain constitutional legality.

The militia were the voluntary civilian forces organized by unions or political parties who fought for the Republicans in the war.

How Did the Conflict Evolve?

The Civil War lasted around three years. The rebel army, which was better organized and equipped, took the military initiative. The Republicans lacked an effective military strategy and aid from abroad, so they almost always acted defensively to stop Franco’s army.

July 1936-March 1937: The Battle of Madrid

The rebel troops advanced through Andalusia, Extremadura, and Toledo and arrived at the gates of Madrid in November 1936. Fearing that the capital was about to be conquered, the Republican government fled Madrid and moved to Valencia. In the Battle of Madrid, Republican forces (part of the army, militia volunteers, and members of the International Brigades) resisted the attack. The rebels’ commanders tried other ways to enter the city (the battles of Jarama and Guadalajara), but Franco finally decided to abandon Madrid and move to other regions.

April 1937-December 1937: The Battle of the North

The Battle of the North occurred between April and October 1937. Franco’s army bombed the most important cities on the Cantabrian coast. On 26 April 1937, the German Condor Legion bombed the city of Guernica, causing many civilian casualties. The Basque Country and its industrial and mining areas fell to the rebels. The Republicans launched a counterattack in Brunete (Madrid) and Belchite (Zaragoza) but could not prevent the fall of Cantabria (August 1937) and Asturias (October 1937).

January 1938-April 1939: The Battle of the Ebro and the End of the War

In February 1938, Franco’s troops occupied Teruel, advanced on Aragón, and arrived at the Mediterranean. The Republican government concentrated all its forces in the Battle of the Ebro (July-October 1938), the longest and bloodiest of the Civil War. After starting the offensive, the Republicans had to retreat due to Franco’s advance. Between November 1938 and February 1939, Catalonia was taken by the rebels. Only Madrid and the center of the country resisted, but they were eventually taken between February and March. The conflict ended on 1 April 1939.

International Support

European democracies considered the Spanish conflict an “internal matter” and remained neutral under the Non-Intervention Committee. Germany and Italy actively supported the rebels. They saw an opportunity to train their armies and test their war tactics and weaponry. German support came in the form of the Condor Legion, whose air squadrons bombed Republican positions and cities, including the town of Guernica. The USSR, however, saw the left-wing Republican regime as a way to spread communism and provided support in the form of weapons, food, and military technicians. The Republican cause also aroused the sympathy of young left-wing people in Europe and America, and about 30,000 enlisted in the International Brigades.

How Did the War Affect the Population?

The war changed the lives of all Spaniards. Hunger and fear were common. Everyday life was overshadowed by the deaths of thousands of soldiers, a shortage of basic goods, bombings, destruction, and enemy retaliation. Sometimes the inhabitants fled from the advancing troops and became refugees; they faced miserable conditions and insecurity.

Many people were persecuted because of their political or religious beliefs. This happened on both sides: on the rebel side, repression and terror were part of the institutional policy of the new totalitarian regime. On the Republican side, the persecution was not so institutional but was carried out by uncontrolled, autonomous groups.

Long-Term Consequences

The Civil War had a far-reaching impact on Spanish society. It affected four areas:

  • Population: The number of soldiers and civilians killed is estimated to have exceeded 400,000.
  • Economy: It was very expensive to rebuild the infrastructure destroyed during the fighting. Agricultural and industrial production also decreased drastically.
  • Politics: The war led to the destruction of democracy and a military dictatorship that robbed Spaniards of their rights and freedoms for almost 40 years.
  • Society: The winners and losers remained divided throughout the Franco regime, which prevented any reconciliation policy.

Why Did the Restoration (1902-1931) Go into Crisis?

Alfonso XIII and Attempted Reforms

Alfonso XIII came to the throne in 1902 under the protection of the 1876 Constitution. The Constitution defined Spain as a parliamentary monarchy. The previous bipartisan system continued; the new leaders were the Liberal José Canalejas and the Conservative Antonio Maura. In response to the demands for reform and regeneration due to the crisis of 1898, attempts were made to end caciquismo and electoral fraud (with limited success). Attempts to reduce the influence of the Church on public life and education were made. The first laws protecting workers were introduced. Taxes on some basic products were abolished. The Commonwealth of Catalonia was created, the first step toward decentralization. But the reform of the military was not carried out because of conflicts related to the war in Morocco.

The War in Morocco and Strengthening Opposition

The occupation of the Rif was opposed by the Berbers, a long conflict with major political and social consequences:

  • The war created huge opposition among the popular classes, who condemned the mobilization of veteran soldiers.
  • And discontent among the army about the promotion system that favored africanistas (who had participated in the Moroccan campaigns).

The main parties continued to alternate in power. The opposition groups grew stronger:

  • The Republicans founded the Unión Republicana coalition, and later, Alejandro Lerroux founded the Partido Republicano Radical.
  • Socialism (PSOE and UGT) gained power among the working class, although some militants broke away and created the Communist Party of Spain (PCE) in 1921.
  • In 1910, anarcho-syndicalist workers founded the trade union Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT).
  • Nationalism was strengthened in Catalonia with the Lliga Regionalista and in the Basque Country with the Partido Nacionalista Vasco.

Crisis and Social Unrest

  • In 1909, the Tragic Week in Barcelona saw an uprising by those opposed to the recruitment of soldiers in Barcelona.
  • 1917 saw a widespread crisis caused by:
    • The discontent of some soldiers
    • A general workers’ strike due to rising prices in Catalonia
    • The demand for autonomy (assembly of parliamentarians)
  • From 1919 to 1923, the social unrest spiraled into violence: workers and peasants organized strikes to demand better conditions; employers’ associations and the government supported the creation of armed groups that used violence against labor leaders.

Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship

The seeds of the coup were sown in 1921, after the Picasso report blamed army officers and even the King for the Disaster of Annual in Morocco, in which more than 10,000 soldiers died. In 1923, General Primo de Rivera organized a military coup with the King’s consent and the support of sections of the high bourgeoisie and conservative politicians. The coup was presented as a temporary alternative to parliamentarism, which couldn’t guarantee order or stop the social revolution.

The new regime:

  • Suspended the Constitution and the Cortes
  • Banned political parties and some trade unions (CNT)

The reduction of freedoms also affected the press and education. Those opposed to the dictatorship were repressed. Catalan and Basque nationalism was suppressed, and their languages were banned in public. Driven by the favorable climate of Europe in the “Roaring Twenties,” the dictatorship started a program of public works and monopolies that revived the economy.

Why Was the Republic Proclaimed in 1931?

Municipal Elections Led to the Republic

The municipal elections on 12 April 1931, were seen as a choice between the monarchy and the republic. Those opposed to the monarchical regime (Republicans, socialists, and left-wing nationalists) created a coalition for the elections (Pact of San Sebastián, 1930). The monarchist parties were divided. The election results showed a greater number of councilors for the monarchist parties; however, the Republican victory in cities (41 provincial capitals) and industrial cities reflected a desire for political change. Faced with the situation, Alfonso XIII suspended royal authority and went into exile. Thousands of citizens took to the streets, and the Second Republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931. A provisional government was proclaimed with Niceto Alcalá-Zamora as prime minister. He called for elections to the Constituent Cortes. The elections were held in June, and the Republican parties won by a significant majority. The new government included members of left-wing and nationalist parties. President Manuel Azaña promoted the drafting and approval of a new Constitution, which entered into force in December 1931.

The New Cortes Enacted a New Constitution

The 1931 Constitution was democratic and progressive. It was not supported by conservatives, who rejected some articles relating to religious and regional issues.

The Constitution:

  • Defined Spain as an integral state, with the possibility of establishing autonomous regional governments.
  • Established a division of powers: legislative power resided in the Cortes, while executive power was held by the Consejo de Ministros and the prime minister.
  • Established the independence of the judiciary and created a Constitutional Court.
  • Established universal suffrage for both men and women for the first time.
  • Proclaimed Spain as a non-confessional state and legalized civil marriage and divorce.
  • Recognized individual rights and established extensive public and personal freedoms that guaranteed equality before the law, in education, and in work.
  • Recognized the right to private property, although the government could expropriate property when it was of public interest.

Why Were There Social Divisions (1933-1936)?

The Conservative Biennium

The 1933 elections were won by right-wing and center parties. The new government began to dismantle the Republican reforms, paralyzing the agricultural and military reforms, changing religious policy, and granting amnesty to rebels of the coup led by General Sanjurjo.

The Subsequent Triumph of the Frente Popular

The left-wing parties formed the Frente Popular to participate in the 1936 elections; the center and right-wing parties also formed a coalition in most provinces. The Frente Popular won the elections.

A Military Coup Took Shape

In a climate of confrontation, the monarchist deputy Jose Calvo Sotelo was assassinated on 13 july in retaliation for tehe murder of a militant socialista, Lieutenatn Jose Castillo. armed officers opposed to the Republic joined far-right groups( monarchist, Falangists,.. ) to organise a military coup.