The Russian Revolution: From Tsarism to Stalinism
The Fall of Tsarism
In the 20th century, Tsarist absolutism hindered the development of political life and modernization in Russia. Nicholas II, the last Tsar, was crowned in 1896. Despite being a major European power, Russia remained economically and socially backward, leading to opposition against the Tsarist regime. This opposition culminated in the 1905 Revolution, a precursor to the larger 1917 Revolution.
Economic and Social Backwardness
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Russian Empire was a vast nation spanning 22 million square kilometers and boasting a population of 150 million. However, it lagged behind other European powers like Great Britain and Belgium in terms of economic and social development. A small minority controlled the wealth, while the majority of the population lived in poverty, including many forced into labor camps. The lack of a substantial middle class hindered modernization efforts. The vast rural areas remained underdeveloped, with land ownership concentrated in the hands of the aristocracy, the monarchy, the church, and wealthy landowners. While reforms were attempted between 1906 and 1910, they primarily benefited the ‘kulaks’ (wealthier peasants). The industrial proletariat grew rapidly between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but remained a small percentage of the population (5% in 1913, compared to 80% in agriculture). These workers, concentrated in large factories, were receptive to revolutionary ideas.
Political Confrontations
The Tsar held absolute power in the early 20th century, preventing democratic development. The country was tightly controlled by the bureaucracy, the police, and the Orthodox Church. A burgeoning middle class desired a constitutional monarchy with a parliament and formed the Constitutional Democratic Party, or KD. In rural areas, the Socialist Revolutionary Party gained traction. Marxist ideas also spread, leading to the formation of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. In 1903, the party split into the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, and the Mensheviks, a less radical Marxist faction who were willing to work with the KD to overthrow the Tsar and establish a democracy.
The 1905 Revolution
The 1905 Revolution highlighted Russia’s deep-seated problems. An economic crisis in 1902-1903 led to strikes, peasant uprisings, and terrorist attacks. The Russo-Japanese War, which Russia lost, further fueled discontent. In January 1905, a peaceful demonstration of workers in St. Petersburg, seeking better working conditions and protection from the Tsar, was violently suppressed (Bloody Sunday). This event triggered widespread uprisings, strikes, and the formation of workers’ councils known as ‘soviets’. In response, Nicholas II introduced a representative assembly, the Duma, and promised improved working conditions. However, he later dissolved the Duma and revoked his political reforms, leading to further unrest.
The February Revolution
Russia entered World War I in 1914 alongside France and Britain. The war effort proved disastrous for Russia, which suffered heavy losses against Germany and Austria-Hungary. The prolonged conflict exacerbated existing problems, leading to widespread discontent with the Tsarist regime. Failures in transportation, ammunition, and food supplies further eroded public trust, with Nicholas II held responsible for the mismanagement. The Bolsheviks, who opposed the war from the outset, gained popularity. By 1915, even liberal and socialist groups joined the opposition. In 1916-1917, discontent reached a boiling point, particularly in cities and within the army, due to supply shortages and military defeats. On February 17, 1917, protests erupted in Petrograd (St. Petersburg), led by women demanding bread. The protests quickly escalated, with more people joining the demonstrations. The Duma called for a new government, but Nicholas II responded by dissolving it. On February 27, troops mutinied and joined the protesters, effectively handing control of the city to the insurgents. The government resigned the following day. The Duma formed a Provisional Committee, while workers and soldiers established the Petrograd Soviet, controlled by Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries. This created a dual power structure, with the Duma and the Petrograd Soviet vying for control. On March 2, a Provisional Government was formed, composed of Constitutional Democrats and led by Prince Lvov, with Alexander Kerensky, a Socialist Revolutionary, as a prominent member. On the night of March 2, Nicholas II abdicated in favor of his brother, Grand Duke Michael, who declined the throne. Russia became a republic.
The Provisional Government (March-October 1917)
With the Tsarist regime gone, a series of short-lived Provisional Governments struggled to maintain control. Meanwhile, the Bolsheviks prepared to seize power. The initial Provisional Government aimed to establish a democratic regime similar to those in Western Europe. It continued Russia’s participation in World War I and implemented a series of democratic reforms, including political amnesty, freedom of speech and assembly, and the establishment of a Constituent Assembly. While these measures were welcomed by many, they failed to address pressing issues such as improving workers’ conditions, land redistribution for peasants, autonomy for non-Russian nationalities, and ending the war. Russia’s continued involvement in the war proved increasingly unpopular, leading to growing support for the Bolsheviks, who advocated for immediate peace. The army began to disintegrate, with widespread disobedience, desertions, and Bolshevik propaganda undermining morale. Soviets spread throughout the country, gaining influence in factories, army camps, and cities, becoming a powerful force alongside the Provisional Government. The situation deteriorated rapidly, with successive Provisional Governments failing to stabilize the country. Kerensky eventually formed a government with Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, but the situation did not improve. The Bolsheviks, capitalizing on popular discontent with the war and promising land redistribution, saw their influence grow, particularly within the soviets.
The October Revolution
What began in February as an uprising against Tsarist absolutism culminated in October with the world’s first socialist revolution. In just seven months, Russia transitioned from autocracy to socialism. The Bolsheviks, a small but well-organized party, gained increasing support among the working class and peasantry. In April, Lenin returned from exile in Switzerland, facilitated by Germany, which hoped the Bolsheviks would weaken Russia’s war effort. Lenin outlined his vision for Russia in his ‘April Theses’, calling for immediate peace and a government of soviets. The Provisional Government, accusing the Bolsheviks of instigating rebellion, attempted to arrest them. Lenin fled to Finland. During the summer of 1917, the Bolsheviks presented their revolutionary program: ending the war, land redistribution, worker control of production and trade, and nationalization of banks and large industries. In late summer, General Kornilov attempted a coup to overthrow the Provisional Government. Kerensky, with the crucial support of the Bolsheviks, managed to defeat the coup. The deteriorating situation convinced Lenin that the time was ripe for revolution. He returned to Petrograd clandestinely and persuaded the Bolshevik Central Committee to launch an armed insurrection to overthrow Kerensky and seize power. Leon Trotsky, the charismatic chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, was tasked with organizing the uprising. On the night of October 24-25, 1917 (November 6-7 in the Gregorian calendar), the Bolsheviks seized control of Petrograd. Government ministers were arrested, except for Kerensky, who managed to escape. Lenin offered power to the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets. The Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries walked out in protest. The Congress elected a new government with Lenin as its head.
The Birth of the Soviet Regime: First Steps
Russia became the first country to attempt the construction of a socialist state led by a workers’ party. The Council of People’s Commissars, the new government, issued decrees aimed at fulfilling its promises to the working class. These included a decree ending the war and seeking peace without annexations or indemnities, and a decree on land, expropriating large estates and transferring them to peasant committees. In January 1918, the Constituent Assembly, elected before the October Revolution, convened. The Bolsheviks, who held a minority of seats, viewed the Assembly as incompatible with the Soviet model and dissolved it. The Bolsheviks established a ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’, with the Soviet system as the foundation of the new regime. Political opposition was suppressed. In July 1918, the Soviet Constitution was adopted, outlining the goal of building a classless socialist society based on the power of the soviets. The new government’s first priority was to extricate Russia from World War I. An armistice was signed with Germany and Austria-Hungary in December 1917, followed by peace negotiations. Lenin advocated for peace at any cost, while Trotsky favored continuing the war. Faced with a German ultimatum, the Bolsheviks accepted harsh terms. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed on March 3, 1918, resulted in Russia losing vast territories and a quarter of its population.
Civil War and War Communism
From 1918 to 1920, the new Soviet regime faced a brutal civil war against anti-revolutionary forces and foreign intervention. France, Britain, Japan, and the United States, fearing the spread of communism, supported the anti-revolutionary ‘White’ forces against the ‘Red’ Bolsheviks. The civil war was a complex and chaotic conflict. The disorganized White forces were ultimately defeated by the Red Army, led by Trotsky, in 1920. Over two years, the Soviets regained control of Ukraine, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. The civil war contributed to the radicalization of the Bolshevik regime and the suppression of political dissent. The war devastated Russia’s already weakened economy, causing widespread famine and millions of deaths. The communist government faced severe supply shortages. Forced requisitioning of grain from peasants, particularly the kulaks, created further hardship and resentment.
The New Economic Policy (NEP)
Following the civil war, Russia was exhausted and faced economic ruin. The country desperately needed a period of recovery. In 1921, Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), a temporary retreat from radical communist policies. The NEP partially restored elements of capitalism to revive the economy. Internal trade was liberalized, allowing peasants to sell their surplus produce freely. Foreign capital was invited, and some industries, including railways, transportation, small businesses, and banks, were returned to private ownership. State-owned enterprises were reorganized along capitalist lines, with an emphasis on efficiency and profitability. Cooperatives were promoted in commerce and agriculture. The NEP had an immediate positive impact. Agricultural production reached pre-war levels by 1923, and industrial output recovered by 1927. However, the NEP also created social tensions within the Communist Party, with some members concerned about the growing economic power of the ‘NEPmen’ (entrepreneurs who thrived under the new policy). Despite these concerns, the NEP provided a much-needed breathing space, allowing the Soviet economy to recover and improve living conditions.
The Stalinist Period: The Succession of Lenin
Lenin suffered a series of strokes in 1922 and died in 1924. The question of his successor was left unresolved, with the decision ultimately resting with the Party’s Central Committee. Two main contenders emerged: Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin. Trotsky, a brilliant revolutionary leader, had played a key role in the 1905 Revolution, organized the October Revolution, and created the Red Army. However, his intellectual arrogance and past disagreements with Lenin had made him enemies within the party. Stalin, in contrast, presented himself as a loyal Leninist. He had played a less prominent role in the revolution but had risen to the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1922. From this position, he systematically eliminated his rivals. By 1927, Stalin had consolidated his control over the party and the USSR. Stalin rejected Trotsky’s theory of ‘permanent revolution’, which advocated for spreading revolution globally, and instead promoted the idea of ‘socialism in one country’. After Lenin’s death, Trotsky’s influence waned. He was stripped of his positions, exiled to Siberia, and eventually expelled from the USSR in 1929. He was assassinated in Mexico in 1940 by a Stalinist agent.
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