The Rise of the Labor Movement: From Luddism to Unions
The Rise of the Labor Movement
The development of industrialization and agrarian transformations significantly impacted the working class. Harsh working conditions and low wages led to social protests. Workers employed forceful measures, forming advocacy organizations and labor interests, later evolving into partnerships to transform the working society. This collective action is known as the labor movement.
The Origins of the Proletariat
The origins of the proletariat are tied to industrialization and the factory system. Early factory workers, initially called operators, faced challenging conditions. Low pay, long hours dictated by machines, rigid discipline, and unhealthy environments were common. Women and children toiled without labor laws. These conditions sparked early worker protests, beginning with Luddism—the destruction of machinery. Workers believed machines were responsible for their misfortune. Luddism was suppressed by authorities, but it subsided as workers realized that the true culprits were the entrepreneurs.
Early Forms of Protest
When employers and workers couldn’t agree, workers utilized unity of action and production stoppages through strikes. Strikes could be partial or general. Success depended on worker support and financial resources to meet workers’ needs during the strike.
The Formation of Unions
To advocate for their interests and coordinate action against employers, the proletariat formed resistance societies and trade unions. Liberal legislation initially dissolved unions and prohibited associations. Consequently, the first workers’ societies emerged under the guise of mutual and beneficial organizations.
The First Unions
In 1839, the first unions appeared, grouping workers in the same trade. They fought for higher wages, reduced working hours, and labor regulations. They also served as resistance and support cooperatives. In 1840, the Mutual Protection Association of Cotton Weavers was founded in Barcelona, formed by proletarians and later encompassing different professions. These organizations had a trade union nature, tolerated but operating underground until their approval in 1887.
The Spread of the Labor Movement
During the Two Progressive period, the labor movement expanded, and labor disputes, or strikes, multiplied, leading to the rise of class unionism. The first general strike occurred in Barcelona in 1855, demanding freedom of association, a set work schedule, and the formation of a joint labor-management committee. Two workers were sent to Madrid to present their grievances, but they ultimately sided with Democrats and Republicans.
Repression and Resurgence
After the biennium, Conservative governments repressed associations, but some associations gained prominence during the rule of the Liberal Union. In 1863, mobilizations intensified, and labor leaders participated in conspiracies against the regime, playing a crucial role in the 1868 revolution that ended the reign of Elizabeth II.
The Rise of Worker Ideologies
As the proletariat grew, specific worker ideologies were disseminated, and the contradictions of the capitalist system were debated. During the first half of the 19th century, utopian socialists criticized the social effects of the Industrial Revolution and proposed solutions, spreading their ideas between 1840 and 1860. Simultaneously, democratic and republican ideas gained traction during the Six Democratic Years.
Marxism and Anarchism
In the second half of the 19th century, Marxism and anarchism spread through the International Association of Workers (First International), founded in London in 1864. The aim was to strengthen unionism and the workers’ struggle for emancipation.
Marxism
Marxism, led by Karl Marx, aimed to overthrow the bourgeoisie, dismantle capitalism, socialize the means of production, and implement a classless society (communism). Its revolutionary process involved establishing a dictatorship of the proletariat through a centralized and disciplined party. The methods of victory included forming parties to lead workers and participate in political struggles. Its economic and social organization was top-down, dismantling capitalism and establishing socialism.
Anarchism
Anarchism, led by Mikhail Bakunin, sought to destroy all forms of state and institution, replacing them with a federation of self-regulated and independent communes. Their methods were apolitical, favoring general insurrection. Their organization was bottom-up, based on a free contract between municipalities that would voluntarily join a federation.
Anarchism in Spain
During the Six Democratic Years, anarchist ideas reached Spain through Giuseppe Fanelli, a member of the International Alliance of Socialist Democracy and a disciple of Bakunin. Two centers affiliated with the International were created. In 1870, the first Spanish Workers’ Congress was held in Barcelona, where the Spanish Regional Federation was founded, uniting worker sections that defended anarchist slogans.
The Split in the Labor Movement
Significant discrepancies between Marxists and anarchists led to the dissolution of the International and a split in the labor movement. Bakunin was expelled from the International at the Hague Congress. In Spain, the Second Congress of the Spanish Regional Federation decided to expel Marxists.
The Rise of Political Parties
During Cánovas’ administration, associations faced strong repression, but they were legalized under Sagasta in 1887. Anarchist and socialist parties would form. Anarchists were characterized by divided trends, including anarcho-syndicalism and anarchist terrorism.
The Socialist Party
Following the dissolution of the First International, Marx advised the foundation of workers’ parties to act independently in each country. A clandestine group founded the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE) in Madrid, led by Pablo Iglesias. After the Law of Associations, the PSOE held its first congress in 1888. Its objectives were the abolition of classes, worker emancipation, the transformation of private property into collectivization, and the conquest of political power by the working class to improve their working conditions. They promoted the creation of a socialist union, the General Workers’ Union (UGT), organized by craft sections and not tied to politics.
The Second International
In 1890, both the PSOE and the UGT contributed to the founding of the Second International in Paris. They agreed to pursue political power for workers, declared May 1 as International Workers’ Day, and advocated for the eight-hour workday.
The Third International
The Third International, or Comintern, founded by Lenin in 1917, sparked debate on whether to follow the Soviet model. In Spain, this led to the founding of the Communist Party of Spain (PCE).
The Church’s Social Doctrine
The Church hierarchy attempted to create labor organizations from a Christian perspective. Pope Leo XIII introduced the Church’s social doctrine, based on justice, urging the state to support disadvantaged groups and encourage employee involvement.
Mass Unionism and Social Unrest
The early 20th century witnessed the rise of mass unionism and labor unrest, with successive strikes. World War I created a climate of rising military, political, and social tension. In 1917, the CNT and the UGT signed a joint manifesto urging the government to control prices, threatening a general strike. The strike, called on August 18 and revolutionary in character, failed due to government repression.
Radicalization and Repression
Subsequent years saw a rapid increase in union membership and social unrest, leading to extreme radicalization. The government responded with repression, applying the Law of Flight (Years of Lead).
The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship
The Military Directory (first phase of the Primo de Rivera dictatorship) banned unions like the CNT and the PCE. The UGT and the PSOE initially resisted confrontation and didn’t participate in developing new labor laws. However, the PSOE changed its position in 1923, supporting the Republic. During the soft dictatorship, they participated in the Pact of San Sebastian.