The Rise and Fall of Napoleon and the Revolutions of 1820, 1830, and 1848

Posted on Nov 29, 2024 in History

Unit 3: The Age of Revolution & the Political Crisis of the Old Regime

The Napoleonic Period

In domestic politics, Napoleon consolidated the achievements of the Revolution. He pacified the country, eliminated radical opposition, allowed the nobility to return, and signed a concordat with the Papacy (1801). He implemented reforms like the Civil Code, establishing equality before the law, economic freedom, and promoting public education. Consequently, Napoleon became consul for life (1802) and later Emperor (1804).

In foreign policy, he aimed to create a vast empire under French authority. Between 1805 and 1810, he dominated much of Europe through military campaigns, installing family members or French generals in conquered territories. Only Britain resisted French rule. However, this dominance sparked strong nationalist resistance movements.

Following the failed invasion of Russia in 1812 and strong resistance from Spain, which ultimately defeated the French in 1814, a coalition of European powers defeated Napoleon at Waterloo (1815), restoring the monarchy in France with Louis XVIII.

The Restoration Era in Europe

The victorious powers met at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), restoring absolutism and redrawing the map of Europe. Absolutist monarchs, deposed by Napoleon, were returned to their thrones, their legitimacy attributed to God. France’s borders were reverted to their 1791 boundaries, and European powers divided territories without considering the national aspirations of many peoples.

To maintain the order established by the Congress of Vienna, the Holy Alliance was formed, committing members to mutual assistance against revolutionary threats. However, the restoration of absolutism couldn’t prevent the spread of liberalism and nationalism.

Liberalism and the Revolutionary Waves of 1820, 1830, and 1848

Liberal ideology, advocating for natural rights like freedom, property, equality before the law, national sovereignty, and separation of powers, fueled the liberal revolutions.

These revolutions occurred in three waves: 1820, 1830, and 1848.

  • 1820s: Uprisings against absolutism in Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Piedmont largely failed. Only Greece, revolting against Turkish rule, achieved independence in 1829.
  • 1830s: Liberals gained power in France, establishing a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe of Orléans. Belgium gained independence from Holland. Spain and Portugal also saw liberal successes. However, an uprising in Poland was suppressed by Russia. Once in power, liberalism became conservative, limiting freedoms and implementing census suffrage, excluding lower classes.
  • 1848: Revolutions began in France, forcing Louis Philippe to abdicate and a republic to be proclaimed. Revolutionary waves also swept through Prussia, Austria-Hungary, the Germanic Confederation, and Italian states like Naples and Venice. Revolutionaries, including the working classes, demanded universal male suffrage and social improvements. Fearing proletarian radicalism, the bourgeoisie suppressed the revolutions and implemented conservative liberal policies.

The revolutions introduced liberal ideas to most of Western Europe, abolished serfdom in parts of Central and Eastern Europe, and spread democratic ideals.

Unification of Italy and Germany

Nationalist ideology posits the nation, with its shared history, language, and culture, as the fundamental unit of a people’s life. Its goal is for every nation to have its own sovereign state.

19th-century nationalism manifested in two ways:

  • In multinational states, it fueled independence movements, as in Greece (from the Ottoman Empire) and Belgium (from the Netherlands). Ireland’s attempt to separate from the United Kingdom failed.
  • In nations divided into several states, it promoted unification, as in Italy and Germany.

Italian Unification (1859-1870): Led by Victor Emmanuel II, King of Piedmont-Sardinia, and his Prime Minister, Cavour, Italy, previously divided into seven states, was unified in stages: Lombardy was annexed in 1859-1860 after expelling the Austrians; Central Italy (Tuscany, Siena) was incorporated; and Garibaldi conquered the south. Venice was annexed in 1866, and the Papal States and Rome in 1870.

German Unification (1864-1871): Led by the Kingdom of Prussia under William I and Bismarck, the Germanic Confederation, comprising 30 states, was unified. In 1866, Prussia defeated Austria at the Battle of Sadowa, unifying the northern German states. After defeating France at the Battle of Sedan in 1870, Bismarck proclaimed the Second Reich (1871), or German Empire. The new Germany, a federal system under Prussian hegemony, became Europe’s strongest state.

Unit 4: The Industrial Revolution and Social, Cultural, and Artistic Change

The Industrial Revolution replaced manual labor in small workshops with machine-based work in large factories. Beginning in England around 1760, it spread throughout the 19th century to Belgium, France, Germany, the USA, and Japan.

Several factors caused the Industrial Revolution in Britain:

  • The political climate after the 17th-century revolution fostered an entrepreneurial spirit and pro-development laws.
  • 18th-century population growth, due to improved nutrition and lower mortality, increased demand and labor supply.
  • Improved transport and communication (roads and canals) promoted trade and a national market.
  • Foreign trade, boosted by British colonial dominance, provided capital and markets for the cotton industry.
  • Abundant resources like coal and iron.
  • Agrarian reform (elimination of fallow land, fodder crops, machinery, enclosure) fueled population growth and provided capital for factories.

Consequences of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution had significant consequences:

  • A global division into industrialized and non-industrialized countries.
  • Population growth and urban expansion.
  • Development of other economic activities and capitalist growth.
  • Advancements in science and technology to enhance industrial production.

Demographic, Urban, and Economic Changes

Europe’s population grew from 140 to 300 million between 1750 and 1870, leading to urban expansion and new neighborhoods as farmers migrated to cities.

Transport became faster and cheaper, laying the groundwork for a global market. The first regular railway line opened between Manchester and Liverpool in 1830, rapidly expanding thereafter. Steamships, emerging in 1807, facilitated large-scale canal projects like the Suez (1869) and later Panama Canals.

Capitalism developed with industrial and commercial expansion. Industrial capitalism created corporations and industrial concentration, followed by finance capitalism with stock exchanges, banks, and free markets.

The Labor Movement

The class-based society replaced the estates of the Ancien Régime. The bourgeoisie became dominant, while the proletariat remained excluded from political and social power.

To improve their situation, the proletariat organized:

  • Violent acts against employers and machine destruction (Luddism).
  • Formation of associations and trade unions (e.g., Trade Unions in the UK) to improve working conditions.

Two major worker ideologies emerged: socialism and anarchism.

  • Socialism (Marx and Engels): Advocated for a workers’ revolution and a proletariat dictatorship to establish common ownership and a classless society.
  • Anarchism (Bakunin and Proudhon): Sought maximum individual freedom through revolution and the abolition of the state.

Both groups formed the First International in 1864 (International Workingmen’s Association, IWA), which later dissolved due to disagreements between socialists (favoring political parties and elections) and anarchists (advocating violent action and general strikes).

Culture and Art

The press gained influence, science progressed (Darwin’s theory of evolution), and technological advancements were showcased in world expositions.

Two main artistic movements developed:

  • Romanticism (first half of the 19th century): Emphasized imagination, freedom, and emotion.
    • Architecture: Historicist styles (Gothic, Neo-Mudéjar, Neo-Baroque) inspired buildings like the British Parliament and the Paris Opera. New materials like iron and glass were introduced.
    • Sculpture: Focused on movement and expression, exemplified by Rude’s La Marseillaise relief on the Arc de Triomphe.
    • Painting: Emphasized color, light, movement, and feelings, with prominent artists like Géricault (The Raft of the Medusa) and Delacroix (Liberty Leading the People).
  • Realism (1848-end of the century): Primarily expressed in painting, it objectively depicted reality. Two trends emerged: Landscape painting (Barbizon School) and testimonial/pure realism (Millet, Courbet, Daumier), portraying peasant scenes and everyday life.