The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs: Unification, Conquest, and Discovery
Dynastic Union: Integration of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon
In 1479, ten years after the marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon, the dynastic union of the two crowns took place. Ferdinand II of Aragon ascended the throne after the death of his father, John II, and Isabella I ascended to the Castilian throne after defeating Juana la Beltraneja in a civil war that ensued to determine the successor to her brother, Henry IV.
The union became a political one, albeit non-institutional, with common goals for both crowns: dominance of the Iberian Peninsula, religious unity of their subjects, restoration of order and centralization of power, and reduction of the influence of nobles and cities, who had led revolts and uprisings in previous decades.
The reign of the Catholic Monarchs involved the introduction of a new political model in Spain: the authoritarian monarchy and the building of a modern state.
Conquest of the Nasrid Kingdom and Incorporation of Navarre
After the union of the major kingdoms in the peninsula (Castile and Aragon), the Catholic Monarchs (1479-1516) sought to complete the political unity of the entire peninsula by incorporating the Muslim kingdom of Granada and the kingdom of Navarre (1512).
Granada, the last Muslim kingdom of former splendor in the Peninsula, was an easy target linked to political and religious intentions. The conflict began in 1481 with the conquest of the city of Zahara (Cádiz) and lasted until January 2, 1492, when the Catholic Monarchs took possession of the Alhambra, culminating the process of the Reconquista for Castile. Its inhabitants were allowed to keep their religion, language, and customs, and were known as Mudejars. This tolerance lasted only until 1500, when they were expelled from Granada or forced to convert to Christianity.
The incorporation of the Kingdom of Navarre into the Castilian crown occurred after the death of Isabella I (1504) and resulted from an ongoing conflict with France. Navarre had been ruled by dynasties of French origin since 1234, posing a threat to political and military security. In 1512, Ferdinand, citing Navarre’s alleged conspiracy with France against Castile, occupied Navarre militarily. He appointed Diego Fernández de Córdoba as the first viceroy, and in 1515, the Kingdom of Navarre was definitively incorporated into the crown of Castile, while Navarre retained its privileges, institutions, and currency.
Organization of the State: Institutions of Government
The reign of the Catholic Monarchs (1479-1516) marked the introduction of the modern state through territorial unity and centralization of power. Each crown maintained its institutions, tax collection systems, currency, language, laws, customs, and traditional practices.
In the kingdom of Aragon, Ferdinand II imposed new institutions such as the Viceroy (royal deputy in each realm), the Council of Aragon (advisory), and the insaculación system (lottery) for the selection of municipal offices, attempting to strengthen his power against the nobility and local oligarchies.
In Castile, royal power was also strengthened through councils (finance, Indies, etc.) that depended on the monarchy and magistrates, representatives of the king in the cities.
The only institution with jurisdiction over both crowns was the Inquisition, an ecclesiastical court to oversee the orthodoxy of the Catholic faith.
Foreign Policy: Italian and North African Politics During the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella
Rivalry with France for the domination of Naples was the main cause of the Italian Wars that began in the last years of the fifteenth century and represented the beginning of Spain’s hegemony as a nation in Europe.
By the Treaty of Barcelona (1493), Charles VIII of France returned Roussillon and Cerdanya to Ferdinand. A few years later, the Treaty of Lyon (1504) was signed, which granted Spain complete inheritance of the kingdom of Naples.
The African policy pursued by the Catholic Monarchs led Castile to expand into the southern coast of Morocco, the refuge of the Moors from Granada. Aragon took over Melilla and became interested in the Tunisian coast (near southern Italy and Sicily).
The Discovery of America
The fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453) cut off the traditional spice route from the eastern Mediterranean, leading Castile and Portugal to seek alternative routes to reach the Far East (China and Japan). Portugal tried to circumnavigate Africa, while Castile sought a route across the Atlantic.
Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor and expert cartographer, presented his project to the Catholic Monarchs. On April 17, 1492, they signed the Capitulations of Santa Fe, appointing him admiral, viceroy of the conquered territories, and granting him one-tenth of the profits. On October 12, 1492, Columbus reached the Caribbean island of San Salvador, believing he had reached the Indies. Columbus made three more voyages and died in 1506 without knowing he had discovered a new territory.
Disputes between Castile and Portugal over Atlantic routes ended in 1494 with the Treaty of Tordesillas, which drew a dividing line between the two, with Portugal acquiring Brazil and Castile the rest.
Conquest and Colonization
The process of conquest of America (16th century) by the Spanish developed in three stages: the West Indies conquests, continental conquests, and achievements in the interiors.
The continental conquests involved empires with large populations, who were used as sedentary labor to exploit the lands and silver mines. The Aztec and Inca empires were the main conquests, achieved through the collaboration of large contingents of indigenous people and the element of surprise. The Spanish were adventurers and experts in ambushes, and sometimes, the indigenous people venerated them as gods.
After the conquest of new territories, a period of colonization and exploitation began. Precious metals and agricultural products arrived in Spain from America, as well as unknown crops such as potatoes, cocoa, tobacco, and tomatoes. European crops such as sugarcane, vines, and olives were introduced to America, along with livestock like sheep, cows, and horses, manufactured goods, and African slaves.
Trade was a monopoly controlled by the Crown through the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) in Seville (1503).
The discovery and conquest of America altered the worldview and cultural values in Spain and Europe.