The League of Nations and the Russian Revolution

The League of Nations

The League of Nations was the first international organization dedicated to collective security. Based in Geneva, it was flawed from the start because major powers like the US and Russia were not members. The US Senate opted not to join, viewing the League as a threat to its liberal ideals and fearing its proximity to Russia.

Its main purpose was maintaining peace, but it lacked a military force. It relied on treaties and arbitration to settle disputes and aimed to promote democratic institutions. By 1930, it had 60 member states. However, it began to decline in 1931 with the departure of Japan, Germany, and Italy, foreshadowing the outbreak of World War II. The League dissolved in 1946.

The Russian Revolution (1905)

At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II, who held absolute power in an autocratic regime. Most of the population worked in agriculture, with limited industrial development and a small proletariat. The economy was underdeveloped.

Political Parties:

  • KD: Constitutional Democratic Party
  • SR: Social Revolutionary Party (populist and anarchist)
  • SD: Social Democratic Labour Party (Mensheviks and Bolsheviks)

Russia’s defeat in the Russo-Japanese War in 1904 undermined nationalist sentiment. In 1905, a popular revolution erupted, marked by worker strikes and military mutinies. On Bloody Sunday, the Tsarist army fired on peaceful demonstrators, causing hundreds of deaths. The unrest spread to the countryside and navy, including the famous mutiny on the battleship Potemkin.

Nicholas II responded by granting some liberties, including the creation of a parliament (Duma) and the right to vote. The bourgeoisie was satisfied, but the Tsar resisted further liberal reforms.

In factories, workers formed soviets (councils), which would later play a crucial role in the revolution.

The Revolutionary Process in 1917

Throughout 1917, Russia transformed from an absolute monarchy to the world’s first Bolshevik republic, where the proletariat exercised a dictatorship.

The year saw a bourgeois revolution in the countryside, a socialist revolution in the cities, and uprisings among non-Russian nationalities within the empire. The people demanded “peace, bread, and land.”

Food shortages and economic hardship were widespread, fueling discontent. Intellectuals also supported the revolutionary movement.

A military and popular uprising in St. Petersburg forced the Tsar to abdicate. The liberal bourgeoisie formed a provisional government, while the Social Democrats established soviets, creating a dual power structure. The government, led by Prince Lvov, faced challenges as soldiers often obeyed the soviets over the provisional government. Lvov resigned due to internal conflicts.

Alexander Kerensky, a moderate socialist, became the new leader. He aimed to establish a republic but refused to withdraw from World War I.

The Bolshevik Phase and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

On October 25th (November 7th in the Gregorian calendar), the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power with the help of the Red Guards. They stormed the Winter Palace, where the provisional government was meeting, without the knowledge of the soviets. The Mensheviks and other socialist groups protested and left the Congress of Soviets.

The Bolsheviks formed the Council of People’s Commissars, with Lenin as its chairman. Other prominent members included Stalin and Trotsky. The Internationale became the new national anthem.

To end Russia’s involvement in World War I, the Bolsheviks signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers. This meant ceding significant territories, including Finland, the Baltic states, and Poland, and losing 26% of the population.

Land was redistributed among the peasants.

Although elections for a Constituent Assembly were held, Lenin, dissatisfied with the results, dissolved it. He decided that the Congress of Soviets, where the Bolsheviks held a majority, would draft the new constitution.

The Construction of the USSR

In 1918, a new constitution was adopted, establishing the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). It granted equal rights to all citizens, including the right to self-determination. The Communist Party became the sole ruling party, and the capital was moved to Moscow.

While the revolution had triumphed in major cities, vast regions remained outside Bolshevik control. Anti-communist forces, known as the White Armies, launched a civil war from 1918 to 1920. Some foreign powers supported the White Armies in response to Lenin’s decision to cancel Russia’s foreign debt and nationalize banks and industries.

To address famine, revive the economy, and compensate for territorial losses under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Lenin implemented War Communism. This involved nationalizing agricultural and industrial production and centralizing all trade under state control.

After World War I ended in 1919, foreign powers withdrew their support for the White Armies, fearing the spread of Bolshevism. By the fall of 1920, the Red Army had defeated the White Armies, solidifying Bolshevik rule. Lenin concluded that socialism needed to be strengthened in Russia before it could be spread internationally.

In 1919, the Bolshevik party founded the Third International (Comintern) to promote worldwide proletarian revolution.

With the end of the civil war, Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP). This involved a partial return to private ownership in agriculture and small-scale industry and allowed for limited free trade to stimulate the economy. However, heavy industry remained under state control. The NEP was intended as a temporary measure. The ruble’s devaluation and low agricultural prices led to discontent among farmers. Some voiced concerns that capitalism was being restored. Lenin, fearing this, became increasingly wary of the NEP.

Lenin fell ill and, in his will, requested that Stalin not succeed him. He died in 1924.

Exploration in Africa

  • Kitchener: Ascended the Nile River.
  • Henry Stanley: Descended the Congo River to its source.
  • David Livingstone: Reached Victoria Falls via the Zambezi River.
  • Robert Peary and Amundsen: Explored the North and South Poles, respectively.

Definitions

  • Enclaves: Territories surrounded by another state or jurisdiction.
  • Metropolis: The central state in relation to its colonies or overseas territories.
  • Departments: French administrative subdivisions, equivalent to Spanish provinces.
  • Jules Ferry: French Prime Minister who promoted industrialization, administrative reform, secular education, and legalized divorce.
  • Leopold II: Belgian monarch who personally financed the exploration and colonization of the Congo region.
  • Cecil Rhodes: Entrepreneur who secured a concession to build a railway from Cape Town to Cairo.
  • Commonwealth: A confederation of British nations in the 20th century.
  • Cipayo: Indian soldiers serving in the British army in the 19th century who rebelled against the Empire.
  • Pacha: Title given to viceroys or governors in the Ottoman Empire.
  • Boxer Rebellion: An anti-foreign uprising in China, supported by Empress Cixi, that contributed to the 1911 revolution.
  • Social Covenant: An agreement where a colony provided raw materials and resources to the mother country in exchange for capital investment and manufactured goods.
  • Meiji Era: A period in Japan when the Emperor assumed direct power, modernized the country, and adopted some Western practices.
  • Irredentism: An Italian movement after unification that sought to reclaim territories under Austro-Hungarian rule (Trentino, Istria, and Dalmatia).
  • NEP: The New Economic Policy in Soviet Russia, which temporarily restored some private enterprise and free trade.
  • Mandate: Guardianship of a territory granted to a state by the League of Nations.