The Impact of Spanish Colonial Expansion in America
7. Overseas Expansion and Colonial Empire Building
7.1. The Discovery of America The discovery and conquest of America was a Spanish endeavor aimed at finding an alternative route to the East Indies. Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor, intended to reach the West Indies based on the idea of the sphericity of the earth. Until the fall of Granada, the Catholic Monarchs (RRCC) did not accept Columbus’s proposal, who signed an agreement with them: the surrender of Santa Fe (April 17, 1492). In return, he would receive the titles of Admiral, Viceroy, and Governor of the discovered lands and would benefit from one-tenth of the wealth obtained. Columbus left the port of Palos in August 1492 and, in October, arrived at the Antilles, specifically the island of Guanahani, which he named San Salvador. After discovering Cuba, he returned to the peninsula. Columbus made three more voyages between 1493 and 1504. However, other explorers, known as the minor travelers, explored the coasts of South America, including the Florentine Amerigo Vespucci, who claimed that the lands did not belong to Asia. A German mapmaker named the continent America in 1507. After Columbus’s first voyage, the Spanish monarchy recognized its rights to the discovered lands, which extended beyond an imaginary line one hundred leagues west of the Azores Islands and Cape Verde, according to papal arbitration by Alexander VI and the Treaty of Alcaçovas (1479) between Castile and Portugal. However, the Portuguese were dissatisfied with the new developments. The RRCC, interested in maintaining good relations with the neighboring kingdom, signed the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), which moved the dividing line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, allowing Portugal to occupy Brazil.
7.2. Conquest and Colonization of America
The discovery of America attracted many Spaniards eager to make their fortunes. Through the mechanism of the capitulations, they obtained permission from the Crown to explore new lands and conquer them. In 1519, Hernán Cortés, leading 600 men, 32 horses, and 10 cannons, set out to conquer the Aztec Empire. Taking advantage of rivalries and indigenous beliefs, along with his military prowess, he ultimately gained control of Tenochtitlan in 1521, adding Mexico to the Spanish domains. In 1531, Francisco Pizarro, leading a host of a hundred men, imprisoned the Inca emperor Atahualpa. Taking advantage of the civil war among the Incas, he managed to take control of Cuzco and extend his rule over the entire Empire. In 1535, he founded Lima, Peru, completing the incorporation of Spanish rule. The colonization of America was carried out using Spanish-origin formulas, such as the allotment or surrender, along with other novel practices, including the parcel (the transfer of Indians to Spaniards as slaves, forcing them to evangelize) and the mita (forced labor in Inca communities). Criticism from missionaries regarding the treatment of Indians by the Spanish led the authorities to abolish the encomienda and legally protect the Indians (Laws of Burgos, 1512; New Laws, 1542).
7.3. Government and Administration in the Colonial Empire
Since the beginning of the conquest of America, Spain imposed the institutions that existed in Castile. There were two viceroys in New Spain and Peru, who held the highest authority in the Indies. They were appointed for a specific period and typically belonged to the Castilian nobility. In the rest of the territories, governors and captains general were appointed. The upper body was the Council of the Indies, consisting of Castilian nobles, which held almost absolute power for 300 years. This body conducted extensive legislative work that regulated colonial life, enforcing laws with excessive rigor. Commerce and navigation between Spain and its American possessions were managed by the House of Trade in Seville. The judicial system was very similar to that of Castile, with regional hearings established and municipalities created in cities.
7.4. Impact of America on Spain
The discovery of America had a profound impact on Spanish society. The wonders of the Indies attracted hundreds of adventurers eager to make their fortunes in America, searching for El Dorado and the Fountain of Youth. Similarly, the existence of a population outside the Christian message encouraged many missionaries to evangelize those lands, becoming a cornerstone for the protection of the Indians against abuses by the Spanish (Fray Bartolomé de las Casas) and the preservation of indigenous cultures (whose languages were learned to communicate the Gospel). America flooded the Spanish and European markets with a steady stream of products. Gold and especially silver arrived promptly via the Indian fleet, allowing the Crown to fund corporations and raise prices in European markets. New products such as cocoa, tobacco, corn, and potatoes also arrived at the port of Seville, with corn and potatoes becoming widespread only in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.