The History of Prohibition and Drug Control in North America

Posted on Sep 11, 2024 in Social sciences

Prohibition: The Volstead Act (1917)

The US in 1916

The Volstead Act, also known as the War Prohibition Act, was passed by the new Congress in 1917.
It blocked the manufacture, sale, and consumption of alcohol during World War I.
It added enforcement mechanisms to the 18th Amendment.

Andrew Volstead

Congressman Andrew Volstead sponsored the act.
However, the act may have been drafted in whole or in part by prohibitionist Wayne Wheeler.

Wayne Wheeler (1869-1927)

Under Wheeler’s leadership, the Anti-Saloon League focused entirely on achieving Prohibition.
The League supported or opposed candidates based solely on their stance on prohibition.
Wheeler developed a political strategy known as Wheelerism.

Volstead Act: Loopholes

Despite restrictions on alcohol, the act had two loopholes for wineries and distilleries:
1) Allowance for the manufacture of wines for religious purposes.
2) Allowance for the production of liquors for industrial or medical purposes.
A 1925 study showed that over a 2-year period during prohibition, there was a significant increase in the production of sacramental wine.
There was not a similar increase for medicinal liquors.

Consequences of Prohibition

Closure of saloons and restaurants.
Creation of a criminal underworld involved in smuggling and illegal alcohol production.
Danger to individuals due to the consumption of unregulated alcohol: approximately 10,000 people were killed by the Federal Poisoning Program, which intentionally denatured industrial alcohol to discourage its consumption.

The Rise of Criminal Activity

Chicago in the Roaring Twenties

Chicago became a haven for those seeking to evade prohibition laws during the “Roaring Twenties”.
Many of Chicago’s most notorious gangsters, such as Al Capone, gained power and wealth through bootlegging and other illegal activities related to prohibition.
By the end of the 1920s, Capone controlled a vast criminal empire built on the profits from illegal alcohol.
Crimes such as theft and murder increased significantly during prohibition.

Bootlegging

The term “bootlegging” came into use in the 1880s, referring to the practice of concealing illegal items, such as flasks of alcohol, in the tops of boots.
Bootleggers made huge profits by distributing alcohol products to speakeasies (illegal bars) and other consumers.

Crime Rate in the US

Reverend Billy Sunday’s Optimism

Reverend Billy Sunday, a prominent evangelist and supporter of prohibition, predicted a dramatic decrease in crime and social ills as a result of prohibition. He famously stated: “The reign of tears is over. The slums will soon be a memory. We will turn our prisons into factories and our jails into storehouses and corncribs. Men will walk upright now, women will smile and children will laugh. Hell will be forever for rent.”

The Reality of Prohibition’s Impact on Crime

In 1914, the average number of homicides in a large city was 5.6 murders per 100,000 people. By the final year of prohibition, it had risen to almost 10 per 100,000. After prohibition was repealed, by the end of World War II, it had fallen back to 5 per 100,000.
Prohibition significantly affected the crime rate, leading to increases in thefts, assault, and battery, often fueled by alcohol consumption.
Before prohibition, there were only 4,000 federal convicts, with fewer than 3,000 in federal prisons. By 1932, this number had increased by 561%, and the federal prison population had increased by 361%.
Over two-thirds of all prisoners in 1930 were incarcerated for alcohol-related offenses or smuggling.

The Purple Gang

Street executions became a common tactic used by prohibition-era gangsters.
The Purple Gang, a notorious criminal organization in Detroit, was responsible for an estimated 500 murders during prohibition.

The End of the Purple Gang

“What really signaled the end of the Purple Gang was the abolition of Prohibition… there was no longer any need for bootlegging and whiskey smugglers. The millions of dollars of profits that had made the…thugs one of the most feared and powerful gangs in Detroit’s history dried up overnight. The Purple Gang’s bloody, bootlegging dynasty had come to an abrupt end.” – Gordon

State Control and the End of Prohibition

Prohibition in Canada

Canada also experienced a period of prohibition in the early 20th century.
Ontario had some exceptions to the federal prohibition law.
By 1920, the decision to continue or end prohibition was left up to the provinces.
Provinces began to abandon prohibition, with Quebec being the first to do so.

Factors Contributing to the Repeal of Prohibition in the US

The liquor industry, individuals opposed to prohibition, and the Association Against the Prohibition Amendment actively campaigned for its repeal.
People began to believe that prohibition was a failure.
Society under prohibition was perceived as worse than before.
Prohibition failed to prevent alcohol consumption.
Prohibition was seen as an attack on the capitalistic nature of the US.
The Stock Market Crash of 1929 created a need for jobs and government revenue, and ending prohibition was seen as a way to create wealth and jobs.

New Values and Habits

New values emerged after prohibition, including tolerance, sociability, and secularism.
New habits developed, including the normalization and domestication of drinking.
Supermarkets began selling alcohol, refrigerators became common in homes, and happy hours in bars became popular.

New State Policies

Liquor Control in Canada

Canada implemented various liquor control policies after prohibition.
Harm reduction policies were adopted, including state ownership of liquor stores, control over access to alcohol, and targeted interventions for specific groups, such as Indigenous people and immigrants.
Liquor control became a matter of local jurisdiction, with states allowing counties to regulate alcohol sales.
By 1966, the sale of alcohol was no longer prohibited in most of the US, although 10 states still banned the sale of spirits in bars.

Post-Prohibition

The Fate of Temperance Groups

After the repeal of prohibition, temperance groups and proponents of prohibition continued to advocate for stricter alcohol control measures.
Three important battles emerged: 1) Establishing a minimum drinking age. 2) Restricting commercial advertising of alcohol. 3) Limiting the availability of alcohol.

World War II and Alcohol

The American army provided alcohol to soldiers during World War II, and women also began to drink beer more commonly.
Life on military bases was often boring, and soldiers frequently drank alcohol.
Military law prohibited drunkenness, with the penalty being a pay cut (for a maximum of 3 months).

Defining Alcohol as an Illness

After 1945, alcoholism began to be recognized as an illness.
The National Council on Alcoholism and the Yale Center of Alcohol Studies were established to promote research and treatment of alcoholism.
E.M. Jellinek developed the disease concept of alcoholism.
In 1956, the American Medical Association officially recognized alcoholism as an illness, emphasizing the need for treatment and exploring potential cures, including the use of LSD. It was believed that LSD could help alcoholics through “spiritual awakening” or “greater self-acceptance and openness” and also alter their metabolism.

Medicalization of Alcoholism

Alcoholism was increasingly viewed as a chronic problem requiring medical intervention.
It was believed that if managed properly, damage to the brain caused by alcohol abuse could be stopped and possibly reversed.
The risk of developing alcoholism was attributed to environmental factors, such as family history and social influences.
The theory of alcoholism as a disease remains controversial.

Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD)

Candy Lightner founded Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) in 1980 after her 13-year-old daughter was killed by an intoxicated driver.
MADD organized to raise awareness about the dangers of drunk driving and advocate for stricter laws.
MADD’s efforts led to bans on happy hours in bars, the establishment of a minimum drinking age of 21, and the implementation of ignition interlock devices for cars (for people who have been convicted of drunk driving).

Defining Alcohol Use as a Moral Problem (1830-1920)

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, there were attempts to define alcohol use as a sin, vice, or bad behavior.
The Industrial Revolution led to urbanization, increased leisure time, disposable income, and privacy, which contributed to changes in drinking patterns.
However, excessive alcohol use was also seen as undermining the work ethic.
Alcohol was linked to disturbing public order, a poor work ethic, and the decline of society.
Arguments against alcohol use were often framed in terms of class and ethnicity, with drinking being portrayed as a problem primarily associated with the working class, Irish immigrants, and Indigenous people.

Class and Alcohol

Class Identity and Drinking Culture

Drinking after work became a part of working-class identity and culture.
The working class felt that they were being unfairly targeted by the upper class for their drinking habits.
Joe Beef’s Canteen in Montreal was a popular gathering place for sailors, longshoremen, unemployed men, and petty thieves.
The middle class viewed Joe Beef’s Canteen as a moral hazard and a threat to social peace.
Charles McKiernan, the owner of Joe Beef’s Canteen, was a controversial figure. Critics called him the wickedest man in Montreal, but to the working class, he was their champion.
Joe Beef’s Canteen was not only a popular drinking spot but also a source of aid in times of unemployment, sickness, and hunger.
It became a stronghold of working-class values.

The Temperance Movement in the 19th Century

The temperance movement aimed to control alcohol consumption.
It began in the early 19th century when social aid from the government was minimal.
Most Canadians were self-employed (farmers, fishermen, small business owners).
There was a belief that self-discipline was essential to economic success and that alcohol was an obstacle to self-discipline. This led to the promotion of temperance or abstinence from alcohol.
Drinking was seen as a major cause of urban poverty.
The first temperance societies in Canada were established in 1827 in Pictou County, Nova Scotia, and Montreal. They tolerated moderate use of wine and beer.
In 1848, the Sons of Temperance, a fraternal society modeled on the US Odd Fellows, came to Canada from the US. Other temperance groups included the Royal Templars of Temperance and the International Order of Good Templars.
These groups declined in popularity after 1890.
The most important temperance society was the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), founded in the US but established in Canada in 1874.
The WCTU was one of the few organizations in which women could play a significant political role in society.

The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)

The WCTU’s goal was to reform both the spiritual and physical lives of people and to create a “Sober and pure world” through abstinence, purity, and evangelical Christianity.
The WCTU was interested in a number of social reform issues, including labor, prostitution, public health, sanitation, international peace, and later, suffrage.
Initially, the WCTU focused on promoting temperance as a matter of individual choice.
They used temperance pledge cards, where individuals pledged to God to abstain from alcohol.
Over time, the WCTU found that pledge cards were not enough and that temperance alone was insufficient to achieve their goals. As a result, they shifted their focus to advocating for prohibition.

From Temperance to Prohibition

The WCTU became a major organizing force for prohibition campaigns.
Francis Stephens Spence of Toronto, the secretary of the Dominion Alliance for the Total Suppression of the Liquor Traffic, was a controversial figure. She discouraged Catholic involvement in the temperance movement.
French Catholics viewed prohibition as an extreme measure.
La Ligue anti-alcoolique, founded in Quebec in 1906, supported regulation and restriction of alcohol but not full prohibition.

The 1898 Plebiscite on Prohibition

In 1898, a national plebiscite on prohibition was held in Canada. The results were close: 51% voted in favor of prohibition, and 49% voted against it.
Quebec overwhelmingly rejected prohibition, with only 19% voting in favor and 81% voting against.
The results of the plebiscite reflected cultural and religious differences in attitudes towards alcohol between French Catholics and English Protestants.

Prohibition in North America

Prohibition was implemented in Canada from 1918 to the early 1920s and in the United States from 1920 to 1933.
The Anti-Saloon League, founded in the US in 1893, specifically targeted saloons as a source of social problems.
The 18th Amendment to the US Constitution prohibited “the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors.”

Drugs in North America

Opium Smoking: A Long History

Opium smoking has a history dating back 8,000 to 10,000 years.
Laudanum, a tincture of opium, was developed in the 1500s. Opium alkaloids are more soluble in alcohol than in water.
Morphine, an alkaloid derived from opium, was chemically isolated by Friedrich Serturner in 1803. It was named after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams.
Codeine, another alkaloid found in opium, was isolated by Pierre Robiquet in 1832.
Heroin, a derivative of morphine, was synthesized by Charles Wright in 1874. It was initially marketed by Bayer as a cough suppressant.

Cocaine

Indigenous people in South America have chewed coca leaves for over 1,000 years.
By 1900, catarrh remedies (medications for colds and sinus infections) became a notorious source of cocaine.
Cocaine was also used as a food additive.

Marijuana

Marijuana is one of humanity’s oldest cultivated crops, with evidence of its use dating back 12,000 years in Mongolia and southern Siberia.

By 1840, marijuana had entered mainstream medicine, thanks in part to the work of French doctor Jacques-Joseph Moreau.
In 1850, marijuana was included in the US Pharmacopeia, a compendium of drug information and standards.
The US Pharmacopeia listed marijuana as a treatment for a wide range of ailments, including neuralgia, tetanus, typhus, cholera, rabies, dysentery, alcoholism, opiate addiction, anthrax, leprosy, incontinence, gout, convulsive disorders, tonsillitis, insanity, excessive menstrual bleeding, and uterine bleeding.
Patented marijuana tinctures were sold commercially.

Opium Dens on the West Coast

Opium dens, where opium was sold and smoked, were common on the West Coast of North America, particularly in cities like San Francisco, Victoria, BC, and Vancouver.
There were both high-end and working-class opium dens.
In 1878, the city of San Francisco passed the first anti-opium ordinance in North America.
Opium dens remained popular until World War II.
Dr. Alexander Wood invented the injecting syringe in 1843, which made it easier to administer drugs intravenously.
Addiction to opium was not well documented during this period.

Drug Use Before 1890

Drug use was generally considered a vice, but if used “appropriately” for medicinal purposes, it was accepted.
Taking drugs for personal use was seen as defying the work ethic and leading to social irresponsibility.

Moral Panic Theory

Moral panics are characterized by five distinct features:
Concern: Awareness that a particular behavior is likely to have a negative impact on society.
Hostility: Increased hostility towards the group associated with the behavior, who become “folk devils.” A clear division forms between “them” and “us.”
Consensus: Widespread acceptance that the group in question poses a very real threat to society. It is important at this stage that the “moral entrepreneurs” (those who promote the panic) are vocal and the “folk devils” appear weak and disorganized.
Disproportionality: The action taken against the group is disproportionate to the actual threat they pose.
Volatility: Moral panics are highly volatile and tend to disappear as quickly as they appeared due to a wane in public interest or news reports shifting to another topic.

Promoters of Moral Panics about Drugs

Physicians
The Eugenics Movement
Protestant church leaders and members
Opponents of immigration

Public Policies: Marijuana

Americans blamed Mexican agricultural workers for introducing white Americans to marijuana use.
The Harrison Act of 1914 regulated the sale of opium and coca products.
It required sellers to register with the Federal Government, pay a small tax, and keep records of all transactions.
Many states banned the sale and possession of marijuana.

Public Policies: Drugs in General

Marijuana became a new target of drug control efforts. Between 1906 and 1923, many states passed poison laws that included marijuana.
The US government developed a new narrative about marijuana use, portraying it as an addictive drug that led to crime, violence, and insanity.
Cannabis was made illegal in Canada in 1923 under the “Opium and Narcotic Drug Act.” Several factors contributed to this decision, including racism, moral reform movements, the influence of individuals like Emily Murphy (in Canada) and Andrew Mellon (the US Secretary of the Treasury), the DuPont family (who had a financial interest in promoting nylon as an alternative to hemp), and international agreements.

Emily Murphy (1868-1933)

Emily Murphy was born in Cookstown, Ontario, and became the first female magistrate in Canada.
She was a member of the Famous Five, a group of women who advocated for women’s rights.
Murphy was also a supporter of eugenics, a movement that aimed to improve the genetic quality of the human population through selective breeding.
Her book “The Black Candle” is considered responsible for promoting a widespread “war on drugs” mentality in Canada.
In “The Black Candle,” Murphy outlined her concerns about the use of opium, cocaine, pharmaceuticals, and the “new menace” of marijuana.
She claimed that her knowledge of the drug problem came from increased contact with Chinese people in her courtroom.
Race is a prominent theme throughout “The Black Candle.” Murphy refers to one Chinese man as a “visitor” in Canada and suggests that it might be wise to “put him out, if it turns out that he carries poisoned lollipops in his pocket and feeds them to our children.”

Moral Panics and Prohibition

Moral panics played a role in shaping public opinion and influencing drug control policies.
The first Canadian death attributed to LSD occurred in 1967.
In Ontario, the Ontario Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Research Foundation was established to promote education and medical treatment for drug addiction. The foundation did not advocate for a ban on LSD.
The Federal Government of Canada classified LSD as a restricted drug.
The US government also classified LSD as a controlled substance.

Glue Sniffing: A Moral Panic in 1968

In 1968, a moral panic emerged around glue sniffing.
Parents, newspapers, the City of Toronto, and the Board of Education expressed concern about the potential dangers of glue sniffing.
There were attempts to ban the sale of glue to minors or make it a criminal offense.
In 1968, it became illegal to sell glue to minors in Toronto.

State Action on Drugs

On July 14, 1969, President Richard M. Nixon announced a “national attack on narcotics abuse.”
The Vietnam War contributed to concerns about drug use among soldiers.
In 1972, the Presidential Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse recommended decriminalizing marijuana possession.
President Nixon ignored the commission’s findings.
In the US, President Jimmy Carter initially favored decriminalizing marijuana but later abandoned the idea.
Some states voted to decriminalize marijuana possession.