The First World War: Causes, Key Events, and Aftermath
The First World War
Europe was subjected to a series of tensions and crises. France and the UK doubted the growing German power and expansionist turn that Kaiser Wilhelm II gave to his foreign policy. Tensions were colonial and territorial, especially in Morocco and the Balkans. In addition, the national aspirations of Central Europe aggravated the situation.
The relations between France and Germany in the last third of the nineteenth century were very tense due to French claims on the territories of Alsace and Lorraine. To Franco-German tensions was added the dispute between the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires for political and economic control of the Balkans. The two states with the largest industrial development and most commercial activity, Germany and the United Kingdom, became rivals in finding new markets. Germany felt it needed to expand into new markets and achieve a colonial empire in which to place its articles. The United Kingdom relinquished its traditional isolation for these reasons and sought an alliance with France.
From 1907, the major European powers were divided into two opposing blocs: the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente.
The Triple Alliance
The Triple Alliance was created by German Chancellor Bismarck in 1882. Its objectives were to achieve a balance in Europe favorable to Germany; secretly isolate France; assure Austria-Hungary protection of their southern border in the event of conflict with Russia over the Balkans, while Italy received guarantees against a French attack. Following the resignation of Bismarck, Emperor William II took power. By 1913, the German fleet was second in the world.
The Triple Entente
The Triple Entente was established in 1907 through a series of agreements:
- In 1893, France and Russia signed a military pact.
- Another step was the signing between the UK and France of the Entente Cordiale in 1904.
- Finally, in 1907, the Russian Empire joined the partnership, forming the Triple Entente.
The arms race was another step towards the crisis. The highlight of this stage, which has been called “Armed Peace”, took place in the years preceding the war.
Morocco
Germany refused the partitioning of the territory between Spain and France. The German government’s stance of maintaining the independence of Morocco and the landing of William II in Tangier created a serious international crisis. The Algeciras Conference of 1906 was held to avoid war in Europe. It was agreed to recognize the independence of Morocco. In 1911, an agreement was signed by which France surrendered to Germany an important part of their colony of Congo, once Germany accepted the French and Spanish protectorate over Morocco.
The Balkans
Between 1908 and 1913, there were three crises in the Balkans. In 1908, the Austro-Hungarian Empire annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina. In 1912, a Balkan League was formed in order to divide the territories of the Turkish Empire. In 1913, a new war broke out between Bulgaria and Serbia.
On July 28, 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia. From that date, the alliance system was launched.
The war that began in August 1914 was characterized by its long duration, four years.
In 1914, the Great War broke out between the Central Powers and the Triple Entente. As regards naval forces, the Entente was dominant. The two blocs were looking for new allies. It was the first time that the war affected such a large territory.
It was the first “total war” of history. Technological and industrial advances were made in the service of making modern and lethal weapons. Governments resorted to issuing public debt and loans. Propaganda was also used in the countries to inflame patriotism.
The German plan sought a quick victory on the western front, defeating the French army and then focusing all their efforts on the Russian front. The Germans entered French territory, but the Allies stopped the German advance. In late August, Russian troops surprised the German armies.
Since 1915, there was a transition to war positions and trenches. At this stage, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria entered the war on behalf of the Central Powers, and Italy, Romania, and Greece sided with the Allies. Two new tactics were used: trying to open gaps that did not work, and the battle of attrition. The Battle of Verdun sought to weaken the opponent to force him to make peace. Failure accounted for the German military. After that, the Allies launched a similar attack in the Somme, which ended with even greater casualties and no one achieved victory.
In 1917, two events helped change the course of the war: the US intervention and the Russian Revolution.
- In 1917, US President Wilson announced to Congress his decision to intervene.
- In Russia, the Bolsheviks seized power in December 1917 and signed a pact with Germany as the beginning of the peace treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey also signed an armistice.
For its part, the German army collapsed, and the Kaiser abdicated on November 9, while the republic was proclaimed. The new government signed the armistice on November 11, 1918, ending the First World War.
The Fourteen Points
In January 1918, Wilson presented to the Congress of the United States “Fourteen Points” on which a just and lasting peace should be based. Its objectives were:
- The abolition of secret diplomacy
- The freedom of navigation and international trade
- The reduction of armaments
- The creation of a Society of Nations
At the Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920), five treaties were drafted.
The Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles, which regulated the peace with Germany, was the most important. First, Germany suffered deep territorial cuts. Moreover, Germany had to eliminate conscription and limit its military.
With the end of the war, the great empires disappeared. In agreement with the Wilsonian principle of respect for nationalities, new states were formed.
The loss in human life is estimated at 9 million dead and many wounded and maimed. Besides, the 1918 flu caused the death of 6 million worldwide.
There was destruction in the means of production and in transport. The financial costs of the war were intense and widespread. It meant the ultimate loss of control of Europe in the global economy to the United States and Japan.
The League of Nations
The aim was to ensure the maintenance of peace, collective security, disarmament, and economic and cultural cooperation. Its bodies were four:
- The General Assembly
- The Council
- The Secretariat
- The Permanent Court of International Justice