The Fall of Primo de Rivera and Spain’s Transition to Democracy
Opposition to the Regime and the Dictatorship’s End
With political parties outlawed, the first voices against the dictatorship came from intellectuals like Miguel de Unamuno and Vicente Blasco Ibáñez. Universities also joined the opposition, with organizations like the University Federation and a growing trend towards republicanism. Who opposed the regime?
Socialism: Support varied between those who sought to take advantage of the regime’s tolerance to influence social policy and those who radically opposed it (UGT).
Anarchism: The CNT suffered a split, with its most radical sectors forming the Iberian Anarchist Federation, which supported insurgency and violence.
Catalanism: Catalan nationalism became radicalized, choosing the left in response to repression. It staged major acts with international impact.
Republicans: They founded the Republican Alliance (1926) and presented themselves as the only option for renewal, uniting students, intellectuals, and some sectors of the army.
From 1928, criticism of the dictatorship intensified due to the economic crisis affecting all sectors of society, social unrest caused by university protests, and the progressive withdrawal of support from officials and the army. The dictator resigned on January 28, 1930. He was replaced by a government headed by General Dámaso Berenguer. The king intended to return to the previous system, restore the constitution, and hold elections based on the 1876 constitution. However, after the events that had transpired, a change in the political system was inevitable.
Vocabulary
Speculation units: Or lamb, with exclusive sale rights to benefit from market price fluctuations without producing wealth.
Region: Free association of the four councils of the Catalan province promoted by the League to be a first self-governing body, but only with economic and administrative character.
Africanists: Sector of military professionals who mainly pursued their military careers in the wars in Morocco.
Alfonso XIII: Son of Alfonso XII, ruled Spain between 1902-1931. He supported the approval of Rivera’s dictatorship.
Joaquín Costa: Aragonese politician, jurist, and historian. He represented Regenerationism.
Francesc Cambó: Lawyer, financier, and politician. He was the leader of the Regionalist League and promoted a moderate Catalanism.
Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship (1923-1930)
On September 13, 1923, the Captain General of Catalonia, Miguel Primo de Rivera, staged a coup, suspending constitutional guarantees. The reasons used to justify the coup were: social violence, the radicalization of Catalanism, the discredited parliamentary system, and the lack of an effective political opposition. The coup was approved by King Alfonso XIII and supported by conservative social sectors. The army established a military dictatorship.
Military Directory (1923-1925)
Primo de Rivera assumed all powers as head of a military directory that suspended the constitution, dissolved the Parliament, banned political parties, and censored the press. Basic social freedoms were abolished, and repressive actions against the most radical sectors of the labor movement intensified. He implemented a harsh policy against peripheral nationalisms, particularly anti-Catalan. The Commonwealth was abolished, and the public use of the Catalan language was prohibited.
The Moroccan problem was solved thanks to a joint Spanish-French offensive. The successful landing in Alhucemas Bay (1925) led to the surrender of Abd el-Krim and the occupation of the Rif region (1927).
Civil Directory (1925-1930)
Victory in Morocco consolidated Primo de Rivera’s personal power. The directory became civilian in 1925, a council headed by Primo de Rivera, composed exclusively of military personnel and members of the Patriotic Union. Social and economic policy tools were implemented, making intervention a success based on the apparently favorable international economic situation.
Economic Policy
The state guided its economic policy to promote public works and create large monopolies. It practiced tariff protectionism to favor Spanish businessmen. The road and railway networks were improved, and hydrographic confederations were created to promote irrigation and electrification. The increase in public works favored some industries. Monopolies were created that benefited from the protectionist policy. Notable examples include the transfer of the telephone monopoly to a U.S. company, creating the National Telephone Company of Spain in 1924, and the creation of CAMPSA in 1927. The lack of structural reforms in agriculture kept the Spanish countryside in a state of backwardness.
Social Policy
Social policy was characterized by the repression of unions and some paternalistic social reforms, which introduced some improvements in the situation of workers. The National Corporate Organization was created by the state. Its purpose was to regulate working conditions, control the association movement, and avoid social unrest. The Patriotic Union party sought to extend the legal basis of the social regime.