The Enlightenment and its Impact: A Historical Overview
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment, an intellectual movement, spread across Europe and America during the 18th century, culminating in the publication of the Encyclopédie in France between 1751 and 1772. Key characteristics of the Enlightenment include:
- Emphasis on Renaissance anthropocentrism.
- Confidence in human reason, accepting only logical and rational explanations.
- Belief in progress and an optimistic view of the future.
- Advocacy for the right to happiness in this world, with rulers responsible for ensuring the happiness of their citizens.
- Reverence for nature, considering it inherently good and imitating it in art.
Impact of the Enlightenment
The Enlightenment’s impact was far-reaching, leading to significant reforms throughout the 18th and 19th centuries.
Society
The old, unequal, and hierarchical social order (the Ancien Régime) was challenged. Enlightenment thinkers advocated for a more egalitarian society without privileges for the nobility.
Politics
Enlightenment thinkers questioned absolute monarchy and championed citizen participation in government. Voltaire supported a strong monarchy that respected individual freedoms, while Montesquieu advocated for the separation of powers. Rousseau believed politics should be based on a social contract between rulers and the ruled.
Religion
Traditional religious beliefs were questioned, with some embracing natural religion or deism, rejecting the dogma of the 17th century.
Economy
Physiocracy, an economic theory emphasizing agriculture as the primary source of wealth, gained prominence. Industry and trade were considered secondary activities.
Enlightened Despotism
Enlightened despots implemented reforms across various domains:
- Politics: Centralized state organization and kingdom-wide laws.
- Society: Measures like abolishing serfdom and reducing noble privileges.
- Economy: Promoting new crops, reforestation, and other agricultural improvements.
- Culture: Establishing academies to foster intellectual and cultural pursuits.
- Religion: Promoting religious tolerance while limiting the clergy’s political power.
Prominent enlightened despots included Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine II of Russia, Charles III of Spain, and Joseph II of Austria.
Economic Liberalism
Economic liberalism championed free enterprise and emphasized:
- Labor as the sole source of wealth.
- Self-interest as a driver of collective good.
- Regulation of economic activity by supply and demand, influencing production, prices, and wages.
- Non-intervention of government in economic processes.
- Free trade without state limitations.
Nationalism
Nationalism emerged in the early 19th century as a sense of belonging to a community sharing a common past, language, and culture. Nationalist movements sought either independence from foreign rule or unification based on shared characteristics.
The Revolutions of 1848
The year 1848 witnessed a wave of revolutions characterized by democratic and nationalist ideals. In France, a revolution demanding universal suffrage overthrew the monarchy of Louis Philippe. Revolutions with liberal and nationalist aims also erupted in German and Italian states.
Unification of Italy
- Protagonists: The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, led by King Victor Emmanuel II and his minister Cavour.
- Developments: With French support, Piedmont expelled Austria from Lombardy. Central Italian states joined Piedmont. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of Italy. Venice and Rome later joined the unified nation.
Unification of Germany
- Protagonists: Prussia, led by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, and Austria.
- Developments: The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 resulted in Austria’s defeat and the creation of the North German Confederation. Bismarck provoked a war with France in 1870, resulting in Prussian victory and the annexation of Alsace and Lorraine.