The Crisis of Independence and Political Revolution in Spain
1808. Guerra: Crisis of Independence and Political Revolution.
The Situation of the Country on the Eve of the Crisis At the end of 1808, the economic and social situation was very serious (mortality, economic crisis, wars, epidemics…). To all of these, the bankruptcy of the state and the indignation of all social groups directed against Godoy, who was accused of military defeats, were added. The opposition rallied around Prince Fernando. In October 1807, a conspiracy against Ferdinand I was discovered just as he was being forgiven by his parents in the process at Escorial. Fontainebleau’s Treaty and the Mutiny of Aranjuez In the summer of 1807, Napoleon invaded Portugal. Decisions were made that led to the signing of the Treaty of Fontainebleau. In a few days, French troops destroyed the Portuguese and took Lisbon. There was no resistance when Napoleon decided to invade Spain. In November and February, the French army entered Spain. From the night of March 17 to March 18, 1808, the mutiny of Aranjuez occurred when supporters of Fernando stormed the palace. The Abdication of Bayonne and the Outbreak of the Conflict Fernando VII was in the hands of the invaders in Madrid. To speak with Murat, Napoleon met in Bayonne (French territory) with all members of the royal family. There, they underwent forced negotiations. On May 7, Fernando abdicated in favor of his parents, who did so for Napoleon. As the royal family had gone north, leaving the capital unprotected, an uprising occurred on May 2. French troops converged on the city. Murat issued an edict proclaiming his absolute authority. Other officials and authorities did the same in the days following, spreading the rebellion to all cities.
The Forces at Play and the First Year of War Faced with the remnants of the French army, Spain was clearly at a disadvantage. The intervention of British units and the remnants of the Portuguese army greatly strengthened Spanish resistance. The effectiveness of the French army was not as high as in other conflicts. French generals failed to react and ended up acting independently, even disobeying the orders of King Joseph. In mid-June, the siege of Zaragoza began, organized by General Palafox. However, the course of events took a sharp reversal when French troops suffered a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Bailén. The French were also forced to lift the siege of Zaragoza, prompting Napoleon to intervene personally. In front of 250,000 of the Grand Armée, he crossed the Pyrenees in November and, in a lightning campaign, occupied villages, defeating Spanish troops and overcoming resistance at the port of Somosierra. Madrid surrendered on December 4.
Guerrilla Warfare In 1809, the French managed to overcome resistance and move south. In 1810, they completed the conquest of Andalusia; only Cádiz could not resist, supplied by the British. However, Napoleon’s troops were far from defeated. Spanish army units, along with the Central Board, began a war of attrition.
The guerrillas appeared in 1808 as units of armed civilians to maintain a constant threat to the rapidly growing French forces. They included civilians, criminals, and soldiers.
The Change of Direction in the War Starting in 1811, the war changed course. In March, the French left Portugal, and months later, Wellington advanced through the south, reconquering Badajoz. In the spring of 1812, Napoleon decided to attack Russia. In June, Wellington’s troops entered Salamanca, and a month later, the Battle of Arapiles occurred. On June 21, 1813, the Battle of Vitoria resulted in a French defeat. Napoleon then signed the Treaty of Valençay, reinstating the Crown of Spain to Ferdinand VII.
The Consequences of War The war led to a massive demographic collapse, but property damage was also significant. Major cities were completely devastated, and the economic damage included the loss of many manufacturing industries. The war also had international repercussions, significantly impacting Spanish America’s independence process.
José Bonaparte His political position was weak because he was disapproved of by Napoleon himself. He began intervening to impose the royal state of Bayonne, presenting an image of legality and modernity. A series of modernization steps followed (suppression of secretaries, abolition of the Inquisition…). This interference culminated in 1812. José collaborated with the afrancesados, most of whom had hopes in Bonaparte, who ultimately succumbed to failure.
Political Revolution Some institutions and authorities accepted the abdication of Bayonne and formed their own local governing boards. Initially, they formed provincial boards and eventually established the Junta Central, which not only conducted the war but also took on the task of reforming the institutions of the old regime.
Cortes of Cádiz and Constitution of 1812
Cortes: The Composition of Spanish Liberalism The majority came from the urban middle class, including one hundred ecclesiastics and members of the aristocracy. Liberal members predominated, and there were abundant opinions on reforms. Proponents of liberalism had penetrated from France, although they were a minority in Spain. The Liberals demanded a free political regime; they preferred the wealthier classes.
Constitution of 1812 Members proclaimed national sovereignty. In 1812, they created the first constitution in Spain’s history, with special care given to the formulation of the rights of the state and the individual. Sovereignty resided essentially in the nation, establishing the division of powers and defining the state as a modern monarchy. Executive power was hereditary, held by the king. Legislative power resided in the courts with the king, and the judiciary was recognized by the constitution. The state was denominational, with the exclusivity of the Catholic religion. Regarding administration, popular elections for mayors were established.
Other Measures of the Cortes of Cádiz Besides the Constitution, deputies advanced important ordinary legislation. In August 1811, they decreed the abolition of the judicial rule, eliminating mayorazgo and declaring property free. Guilds were abolished, freedom of printing was established, and the Cortes passed extensive religious legislation, launching the secularization of vacant properties.
Fernando VII: Absolutism and Liberalism
The Coup and the Repression Fernando VII returned to Spain in a coup led by a declining faction that removed the Cortes and abolished the constitution. The coup was supported by the upper classes and expressed in the manifesto of the Persas. In defense of the old regime, the Constitution was repealed, laws were nullified, and printing privileges were restored, leading to a return to absolutism. This was part of a general process of restoring the Old Regime. The immediate consequence of the coup was repression.
The Absolutist Sexenio Fernando VII ruled with political instability, which was exacerbated by the disastrous economic situation. After the long period of war in Europe, there was a drop in prices that adversely affected the largest peasantry. The financial situation of the state worsened by 1814, leading to movements of discontent and protests in cities. The army was reorganized, and clandestine liberal movements began to organize conspiracies.
The Constitutional Triennium (1820-1823): Political Characteristics On January 1, 1820, Commander Riego successfully pronounced in favor of the constitutional triennium. This period was characterized by continuous political turmoil due to various causes. First, there was a division between liberals, with moderates on one side and radicals on the other. A second source of instability was the regressive attitude of the king. Soon, foreign intervention began, leading to the restoration of his absolute power.
The Reforms of the Triennium Throughout these three years, Parliament passed new reformist legislation. Initial steps were taken to reform religious and agrarian policies. The Court was marked by anticlericalism and upheld the authority of the state. Military reforms were also addressed to improve instruction, salaries, and educational reforms. The system consisted of the secularization of government education. Over the last three years, attempts were made to address financial problems, including currency devaluation, budget cuts, and requests for foreign credits.
The Omniscient Decade (1823-1833): Repression and Reaction After the fall of Cádiz, Fernando VII published a decree to annul all legislation, and repression resumed. All officers were dismantled, and Fernando VII asked the army to remain in France. Additionally, a realistic volunteer force replaced the national militia, working through their return to absolutism. This led to the emergence of the so-called Realista movement, which demanded that Fernando’s brother, Carlos, be recognized, although they were defeated. This did not prevent the emergence of the Carlist movement.
The Agony of Absolutism and the Succession Crisis The country remained in economic chaos, and by 1830, liberal conspiracies recurred. In this context, Fernando VII triggered a succession crisis to ensure the future of his offspring. In March 1830, he published a pragmatic sanction that eliminated the Salic law, reestablishing the line of succession in favor of female heirs. This was protested by Don Carlos, who believed it undermined his claim to the throne. The conflict remained open when a princess was born in October, leading to a confrontation between Carlos and the absolutist sector. In September 1832, a secession called the Granja broke out, but key ministers were replaced, and Carlist absolutist Bermúdez was appointed head of government while Queen María Cristina was authorized to preside over the Council. On September 29, 1833, Fernando VII died, launching the regency of María Cristina.
The Emancipation of Spanish America
The Causes of Independence The origins of the American independence movement are linked to the policies pursued by the Bourbons in America and the social structure of the indigenous, mestizo, and Creole populations. The mixed-race population, along with many peasants, was exploited by the peninsulares. The policy of enlightened governments merely reinforced this situation. Protest movements and peasant uprisings in the 18th century created a climate of emancipatory claims. In the years before 1808, liberal ideas spread among the Creole minority, influenced by European thought and the example of the independence of the United States, giving a distinctly American character to political demands.
The Beginning of the Independence Process There were ongoing political actions, urban uprisings, and peasant revolts led by Creole elites in major cities of colonial America. The first phase coincided with the war from 1808 to 1814. The Creole bourgeoisie promoted similar actions to those in Spain, on behalf of the deposed Fernando VII and the viceroys. However, they later denied the authority of the Central Board and, in 1810, convinced that the natives could not resist Cádiz, revolutionary juntas were formed in several important cities. Leaders were imprisoned or exiled, which hindered the process of spreading independence ideas throughout America, setting the stage for a second wave of revolution.
The Triumph of Independence A second phase occurred after the restoration of absolutism in Spain, rekindling the desire for independence. In the south, delegates sent to the Congress of Tucumán proclaimed the independence of the United Provinces of South America. San Martín allowed the proclamation of independence in Chile in February 1818. Simón Bolívar proclaimed the Republic of Gran Colombia. The final stage developed after the revolution of July 1820 in Spain. American troops entered Lima and Peru, later proclaiming the independence of Bolivia, and finally Mexico.
The Balance of the International Framework of the Independence Movement The rest of the 1820s served to precipitate and consolidate the new countries. The defeat of the Spanish was due to both internal problems of the monarchy and the absolute context. Another factor was the international context. The colonial wars had opened American ports to international trade. Since 1814, British diplomatic support for the independence movement progressively increased. The United States also provided diplomatic support and sold weapons to the insurgents.