The Castilian Language and Literature in the 18th Century
The Castilian Language
Origins and Influences
The Castilian language, also known as Castilian Romance, originates from Vulgar Latin spoken in the Roman Empire. Until the 3rd century, Latin remained uniform. However, invasions and the loss of the empire’s unity led to differences that favored the emergence of Romance languages. Some examples of Romance languages include Castilian, Catalan, Galician, and French.
Lexicon
The Castilian lexicon draws primarily from Latin, but it also incorporates words from previous languages and historical borrowings. Pre-Romance words come from the peoples who lived on the Iberian Peninsula before the Romans, such as the Iberians and Celts, and include words like “mud”, “car”, and “butter”.
The Germanic peoples (Swabians, Vandals, Visigoths) who migrated to the peninsula left behind words like “war”, “duty”, and “courage”. Arabic had a significant impact on the Castilian lexicon after Latin, with words like “cotton”, “pillow”, and “sugar” entering the language after the Arab arrival in 711.
Latin Influence and Word Formation
Heritage, Learned, Semicultisimas Words
Castilian words derived from Latin can be classified as heritage, learned, or semicultisimas words. Heritage words have been in the language since its origin and have evolved phonetically (e.g., Latin “pater” to Castilian “padre”). Learned and highly cultured words come from Latin or Greek and retain much of their original form. Semicultisimas words entered Castilian later and have undergone transformations according to the language’s rules.
Doublets and Latinisms
Doublets are pairs of words that come from the same Latin or Greek word but have entered the language through different routes (e.g., “reason” and “ration”). Latinisms are Latin words and expressions that have been preserved in the modern language (e.g., “a priori”, “curriculum”).
Prefixes and Suffixes
Prefixes enrich the Castilian language by providing nuances of meaning. Most prefixes come from Latin or Greek and are attached to the root of the word without a hyphen (e.g., “a-typical”, “anti-riot”).
Suffixes complement and clarify the meaning of words. Some suffixes are polysemic, meaning they can have multiple meanings. For example, the suffix “-ón” can indicate large size (e.g., “cabezon” – big head). In some cases, adding a suffix changes the meaning of the word entirely.
Lexical and Semantic Fields
The lexical field is made up of words that share the same lexeme or root, often from Latin or Greek. The semantic field consists of words that share a common idea and express it in different contexts (e.g., “ascend”, “rise”, “elevate”).
Lexical Change and Expansion
Languages are constantly evolving, expanding, and incorporating new words (neologisms, loanwords) while others become obsolete (archaic). A language undergoes adjustments to adapt to new realities, such as scientific discoveries. New generations often introduce new words and phrases, while others fall out of use.
Language proficiency is linked to the speaker’s culture. Reading is an effective way to improve language skills, but it also depends on the individual’s needs. By engaging in conversations and encountering new situations, we activate our vocabulary and transform passive vocabulary into active vocabulary.
The lexicon can be expanded through derivation, composition, and parasynthesis, as well as through neologisms and loanwords.
Word Formation Processes
Simple words consist of a single lexeme without any morphemes (e.g., “salt”). They can also include inflectional morphemes (e.g., “niño” – child) or suffixes (e.g., “cosa” – thing).
Compound words are formed by combining two or more words. They can be written together (e.g., “sacacorchos” – corkscrew), separated (e.g., “correveidile” – gossip), joined by a preposition (e.g., “perro de agua” – water dog), or juxtaposed (e.g., “hora punta” – rush hour).
Derivative words are formed by adding prefixes (e.g., “prehistoria” – prehistory), interfixes (e.g., “tiempecito” – short time), and suffixes (e.g., “corazonada” – hunch) to a root or lexeme.
Parasyntethic words are formed through both composition and derivation (e.g., “enrojecer” – to redden).
Neologisms and Loanwords
Neologisms are new words that emerge in a language to name new realities (e.g., “CD-ROM”). They are often created through derivation and composition, or by forming words from Greek and Latin roots. Acronyms, formed from the initial letters of a phrase, are also a type of neologism (e.g., “ADN” – DNA).
Loanwords are words borrowed from other languages. They can be used in their original form with the same meaning (e.g., “parking”) or with a different meaning (e.g., “gol” – goal, originally meaning “target”). Spanish has borrowed words from languages it has been in contact with, such as Catalan, Galician, Basque, and European languages like French (“sofá”), English (“club”), Italian (“pizza”), Portuguese (“mermelada” – jam), and German (“bigote” – mustache).
Calques and Archaic Words
Calques are loan translations, where the form of a word or phrase is borrowed from another language (e.g., “fútbol” – soccer, from English “football”).
Archaic words are words that are rarely used or no longer used at all.
Semantic Change
Semantic change refers to the evolution of word meanings over time. Meanings are not permanently fixed to words and can change as culture evolves.
Semantic Phenomena
Synonyms: Two words with the same meaning but different forms (e.g., “ascensor”, “elevador” – elevator).
Antonyms: Words with opposite meanings (e.g., “amor” – love, “odio” – hate).
Polysemy: Words with multiple meanings depending on the context (e.g., “araña” – spider (animal), “arañar” – to scratch).
Homonymy: Two words with the same form but different meanings (e.g., “duelo” – duel, “duelo” – pain).
Paronymy: Two words that sound similar but have different meanings (e.g., “infligir” – to inflict, “infringir” – to violate).
Hypernymy: A word whose meaning includes the meaning of other words (e.g., “pájaro” – bird, includes “gorrión” – sparrow, “golondrina” – swallow, “gaviota” – seagull).
Spanish Literature in the 18th Century
The Age of Enlightenment
The 18th century in Europe was marked by the Age of Enlightenment, with France taking center stage. Classicism, which dominated the 17th century in France, continued as Neoclassicism, emphasizing reason, good taste, and harmony.
Towards the end of the 17th century, an intellectual movement began to revise the principles that had governed society. In England, thinkers like Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton led this movement. Locke formulated empiricism and initiated liberalism, declaring the people sovereign and the king subject to laws. Bacon advocated for a rigorous and objective method for understanding nature. Newton revolutionized scientific theories by establishing general laws based on observation.
These ideas spread to France, leading to a period known as the “Siècle des Lumières” (Century of Enlightenment), which emphasized reason and human intelligence.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was a political, philosophical, and cultural movement that transformed European thought. It replaced the authority of the king and the Church with reason and experience, promoting rationalism and empiricism.
Montesquieu and Voltaire championed the Enlightenment, advocating for freedom and spreading its ideas. Diderot and D’Alembert created the Encyclopedia, a compendium of knowledge that became a symbol of Enlightenment culture.
Enlightenment thinkers also emphasized the value of work and trade as sources of wealth. They believed in the goodness of human nature and advocated for freedom, equality, and fraternity. This emphasis on emotion would later pave the way for Romanticism.
The Spanish Enlightenment
The Enlightenment in Spain was a minority movement. The Spanish Enlightenment sought to reconcile reason and criticism with Christian tradition. Modernity arrived from France, and French culture became fashionable.
Spanish universities continued to teach scholasticism while English universities embraced physics, chemistry, and mathematics. Freedom of the press was limited, and Enlightenment ideas arrived late in Spain. Despite the challenges, numerous initiatives emerged with the goal of progress and modernization.
The Royal Spanish Academy and the Royal Academy of History were founded during this period.
Enlightened Despotism and Liberal Monarchy
Under Philip V, Spain modernized and adopted a European style of enlightened despotism, which combined monarchical absolutism with Enlightenment reforms. This approach aimed to improve the lives of the people without granting them political power.
Another current within the Spanish Enlightenment drew inspiration from English empiricism and the ideas of Machiavelli and Montesquieu, who advocated for liberal democracy based on freedom and a government that could moderate and control power. This line of thought found expression in neoclassical tragedy.
The reign of Charles III brought significant reforms, including the use of Castilian in education and the establishment of national education as a public service. Primary education was structured, schools and universities were reorganized with a focus on science, and colleges and schools were founded. The state supported theaters and various trades.
The protagonists of these changes were educated individuals, including writers, researchers, and journalists who showed a keen interest in science.
Prose in the 18th Century
Writers in the 18th century often wrote with a didactic purpose, aiming to clarify the principles that should guide human behavior. The essay and moralistic literature flourished, denouncing social ills and promoting reform.
Cultural initiatives emerged in many cities, including the establishment of the Royal Asturian Institute and surgery schools in Cadiz and Barcelona.
Illustrated Essays
The “ilustrados” (enlightened thinkers) were critics who analyzed the Spanish situation and proposed solutions to overcome ignorance and backwardness.
Feijoo wrote “Learned and Curious Letters”, advocating for reason and fighting against superstition.
Cadalso wrote “Moroccan Letters”, presenting a satirical critique of Spain through the eyes of a traveler, similar to Montesquieu’s “Persian Letters”. He criticized the ignorance and frivolity of a segment of Spanish youth.
Jovellanos wrote on various topics, including the “Report on the Agrarian Law” and “Reports on Public Entertainment”. He believed that education was crucial for prosperity and supported the participation of women in social life.
Blanco White, in his “Letters from Spain”, offered a critical perspective on his country and its people.
The 18th-Century Novel
Isla, a Jesuit priest and humanist, wrote “The History of Fray Gerundio de Campazas”, a satirical novel that criticized the excesses of religious oratory. It also depicted social customs and types.
Torres Villarroel‘s most important work was his autobiography, “Life, Descent, Birth, Upbringing and Adventures of Dr. Don Diego de Torres Villarroel”, in which he defended his dignity and work. He also wrote “Complete Works of Aqueronte’s Boat”. His style is characterized by its richness and rhythm.
Poetry in the 18th Century
Poetry in the early 18th century was influenced by 17th-century Baroque. In the second half of the century, Neoclassicism became dominant.
Luzán summarized neoclassical aesthetic ideas in his “Literary Memoirs”. He presented Paris as the center of science and the arts and advocated for similar cultural development in Spain.
Satirical Poetry
Torres Villarroel cultivated satirical poetry, following in the footsteps of Quevedo. He composed letrillas, seguidillas, romances, and other forms.
The Madrid Poets
During the reign of Charles III, the literary gatherings at the Fonda de San Sebastián in Madrid became prominent. Intellectuals discussed theater, love, and poetry. Cadalso published his poems in “My Youthful Leisure”.
The Salamanca School
Intellectuals gathered around the University of Salamanca, including Meléndez Valdés, who shared a dislike for fanaticism and a love for humanity. His works include “The Flower of Zurguén” and “Rosana’s Fires”.
Jovellanos was also a notable poet. His poems were subjective and romantic, with Anacreontic influences, such as his “Epistle to Fabia”.
Quintana wrote patriotic poems, including “To Padilla” and “The Invention of Printing”.
18th-Century Drama
Neoclassical Tragedy
Fernández de Moratín and García de la Huerta were prominent figures in neoclassical tragedy. Moratín wrote tragedies such as “Lucretia” and “Hormasinda”. He is also known for his romances and ballads inspired by Spanish tradition. Huerta wrote “Raquel”, inspired by a Jewish mistress of Alfonso VIII.
Neoclassical Comedy
Leandro Fernández de Moratín excelled in neoclassical comedy. His urban comedies criticized and sought to reform bourgeois hypocrisy, arranged marriages, and repressive education. His works include “The Maidens”, “The Old Man and the Girl”, and “The Sí de las Niñas” (The Maidens’ Consent).