The Cadiz Cortes & Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
Cortes of Cadiz (1812)
The Supreme Central Board Convenes the Cortes of Cadiz
Meeting in 1810 in Cadiz
The Supreme Central Board, unable to effectively conduct the war, decided to disband. Before this, a Parliament would convene to decide on their fate and organization. While this was being arranged, a regency of five members was established. The country also organized a consultation on the reforms to be undertaken by the Cortes. Despite the difficulty of collecting these responses, the prevailing idea was that the governments of Carlos IV had caused the ruin of Spain.
The entire process and assembly were difficult given the circumstances of the war.
Elaboration of the Constitution, Promulgated on March 19, 1812
In September 1808, the liberal Cortes achieved their first victory by forcing the formation of a single chamber with the right to make laws. At its first meeting, it also approved national sovereignty, meaning that citizens would elect their representatives (deputies in the Cortes) by voting.
The state structure corresponded to a limited monarchy, based on the separation of powers: a constitutional monarchy (executive), the Cortes (legislature), and independent courts.
Other articles of the Constitution addressed the reform of taxation and finance, the creation of a national army, conscription, and the introduction of primary education, both public and compulsory. The territory was divided into provinces, and the National Militia was created at local and provincial levels. Furthermore, the Catholic religion was declared official, establishing a Catholic confessional state.
Liberal Character and Abolition of the Old Regime
Besides the Constitution, the Cortes adopted a series of laws and decrees designed to eliminate the Old Regime and organize the state as a liberal one. This involved eliminating jurisdictional domains, distinguishing them from territories, which became the private property of the lords. They also ordered the elimination of primogeniture and the confiscation of communal lands. The abolition of the Inquisition was voted on, though it faced strong opposition, and religion remained under the control of the Church.
Finally, freedom of work was established, guilds were abolished, and the market was unified. This marked the basic lines of early liberalism and what should have been the modernization of Spain. The legislators of Cadiz took advantage of the situation created by the war to develop a more advanced legislative framework. However, the war prevented the effective implementation of these laws. At the end of the war, the return of Fernando VII frustrated the liberal experience and led to the return of absolutism.
War of Independence (1808-1814)
Causes: Abdications of Bayonne and Joseph Bonaparte as King
Charles IV and Ferdinand VII were summoned by Napoleon to Bayonne, where both abdicated in his favor. Legitimized by these abdications, Napoleon appointed his brother Joseph as King of Spain and assembled a Court to approve a constitution that would dismantle the Old Regime and affirm the appointment of Joseph I.
The new code of Bayonne recognized the equality of Spaniards before the law, taxes, and access to public office.
Joseph Bonaparte began a reformist experiment that sought to liquidate the Old Regime, including the abolition of the feudal system, the confiscation of church lands, and the disentailment of primogeniture and mortmain lands. However, this reform did not garner much support or understanding. A large proportion of the population considered this new government illegitimate, foreign, and sustained by the power of arms. Their actions, often violent, led the population to reject the new monarch.
Popular Uprising of May 2, 1808
On May 2, 1808, the rest of the royal family, still in the palace, was preparing to go to Bayonne. Rumors spread in Madrid that Ferdinand VII had been kidnapped. A crowd gathered at the palace to prevent their departure and turned against the French presence.
Troops under General Murat were heavily used against the revolt, but this example served as a catalyst for the country and a halt to the imperial army.
Beginning: Power Vacuum and the Inability of Authorities to Deal with the Invasion
Formation of Juntas and the Supreme Central Board
Local juntas were formed, initially composed of clerics, soldiers, and nobles, designed to channel popular unrest. These later became provincial juntas, assuming sovereignty, declaring war on Napoleon, and seeking the support of Great Britain. The juntas sent representatives to Aranjuez, taking advantage of the temporary withdrawal of the French from Madrid after the defeat at Bailén. They formed a Supreme Central Board, a new form of government.
Floridablanca and Jovellanos were its most illustrious members, and they recognized Ferdinand VII as King of Spain. With the French advance, the Board fled to Seville and then to Cadiz.
Popular Resistance: Guerrillas and Sieges
Initially, the resistance seemed disorganized, suggesting that the invasion would be quick and easy. However, the resilience of cities subjected to sieges by French troops, who endured harsh conditions for months, froze the army and stopped the advance towards the east.
The defeat of the invaders at El Bruc and Bailén had an immediate impact: Joseph had to leave Madrid, and the soldiers retreated to the north of the Ebro. Napoleon then moved to Spain, making unstoppable progress, and Joseph I returned to Madrid.
Unable to oppose the advancing French forces with a conventional army, the Spanish devised a more effective form of armed struggle: Guerrillas. These were small groups of 30-50 members, typically ordinary workers, who attacked the army by surprise.
The course of the war affected Napoleon. Spanish troops were victorious at the Battle of Los Arapiles. Joseph I definitively left Madrid, and Napoleon decided to agree on ending the conflict with the Spanish, allowing the return of Ferdinand VII.
Ideological Positions
- Francophiles: A minority of Spaniards, including intellectuals, senior officials, and members of the nobility, who collaborated with the monarchy of Joseph I. They believed in modernizing Spain. Many were exiled due to persecution by Ferdinand VII.
- Patriotic Front: The bulk of the Spanish population, opposed to the invasion, held diverse positions:
- Absolutists: The majority of the clergy and nobility wanted the return of absolutism under Ferdinand VII, defending tradition, religion, and opposing any social change.
- Enlightened Absolutists: Some believed in Ferdinand VII’s return but with reforms and modernization.
- Liberals: Saw the war as an opportunity to establish a liberal political system in Spain, based on a constitution as the supreme law, national sovereignty, separation of powers, representative institutions, and the abolition of estates and privileges to promote development.