Symbolism and Modernism in Poetry: A Literary Renewal
Symbolism in Poetry
Symbolism transcends mere formal perfection and the pursuit of outer beauty. It delves beneath the surface of appearances, viewing the sensory world as a reflection (a symbol) of deeper, hidden realities. The poet’s mission is to uncover and awaken these hidden dimensions within the human soul and the surrounding world, recognizing the inherent life and interconnectedness of all things. Symbolism is characterized by suggestions, allusions, and a sense of mystery and fragmentation.
This movement was initiated by Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867), whose “The Flowers of Evil” (1857) is considered a foundational work of modern poetry. Other prominent French Symbolists include Paul Verlaine (1844–1896), Arthur Rimbaud (1854–1891), and Stéphane Mallarmé (1842–1898).
Modernist Poetry
As in Romanticism, poetry became the dominant genre in Modernism. Other literary forms, such as drama and narrative, were infused with lyrical, musical, and visual elements.
Modernist poetry originated primarily in the Americas. Key figures include Cuban thinkers and political leaders José Martí (1853–1895), Julián del Casal (1863–1893), Mexican poet Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera (1859–1895), and Colombian poet José Asunción Silva (1865–1896).
The undisputed leader of the Modernist movement was Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío (1867–1916). His seminal work, Azul (1888), introduced key Modernist themes and formal techniques. His aesthetic was further solidified with Prosas Profanas (1896), showcasing the exuberant and sensory aspects of Modernism: exotic settings, rich adjectives, stunning vocabulary, and masterful metrical skill.
Darío’s masterpiece, Songs of Life and Hope (1905), marked a shift in his work. While retaining his formal virtuosity, the tone became more somber and introspective, reflecting heartfelt concerns and melancholic reflections. The collection also features Hispanic-themed poems, expressing Darío’s faith in the future of Hispanic nations amid the growing influence of Anglo-Saxon culture following the Spanish-American War of 1898.
Among the prominent American authors following Darío is Argentine Leopoldo Lugones (1874–1938). After a period of flamboyant Modernism, Lugones published Lunario Sentimental (1909), a pivotal work in Hispanic poetry. Its use of colloquial language combined with bold, surprising metaphors foreshadowed the avant-garde literature of the following decades. A similar pre-avant-garde, ironic sensibility is evident in the poetry of Uruguayan Julio Herrera y Reissig (1875–1910).
Modernism and the Generation of ’98
The Crisis of the Century
The late 19th century witnessed the rise of nonconformist, anti-bourgeois intellectual currents in Europe and the Americas. These movements rejected contemporary society, criticizing its mediocrity, materialism, vulgarity, and lack of ideals.
In Spain, this desire for renewal clashed with cultural and political decline. Young intellectuals from the middle class (journalists, teachers, doctors, lawyers, etc.) recognized their potential role in revitalizing Spanish social life, marked by backwardness, corruption, and caciquismo. The need for change extended to art and literature, with young writers rejecting the preceding generation’s work, criticizing authors like Campoamor and Núñez de Arce, and even challenging the waning realist novel.
This protest and desire for reform shaped the emerging literature of the late 19th century. However, differing attitudes among writers led to the formation of two distinct groups:
- The first group prioritized art, seeking beauty as an escape from a materialistic, ideal-less world. They were drawn to the rare, exotic, and exquisite, rejecting the surrounding vulgarity. Their bohemian lifestyle defied social conventions and steady work, reflecting their rejection of reality in both life and art. These writers and artists were known as Modernists, sometimes also referred to as decadents.
- The second group, while sharing the desire for literary renewal, went beyond artistic concerns. They directly addressed the cultural and political decay in Spain, examining its causes and seeking solutions. This characterized the authors of the Generation of ’98.
French Influence in Modernist Literature
The renewal process unfolded more significantly in Spanish America than in Spain. Spanish American writers sought to distance themselves from Spanish literary tradition and forge their own path. They looked to other literatures, such as the English and Italian decadents (e.g., Oscar Wilde and Gabriele D’Annunzio), but especially to French literature. Modernism was primarily influenced by two French literary movements of the latter half of the 19th century: Parnassianism and Symbolism, which also impacted other European literatures.
Parnassianism
Parnassian literature was guided by the motto “art for art’s sake,” proclaimed by Théophile Gautier (1811–1872), a precursor to the movement. Rejecting both Romantic intimacy and Realist pragmatism, Parnassians emphasized formal perfection, precise language, and meticulous craftsmanship.
The leading figure of this movement was Leconte de Lisle (1818–1894), whose works (e.g., Ancient Poems, Barbaric Poems) explored themes that would later appear in Modernism: Greek myths, Eastern settings, and medieval Spain.