Principles of Light Reflection and Refraction
Image Formation by Mirrors and Lenses
1. If reflected or refracted rays never meet, the image is virtual because the rays only appear to meet when extended backward. This occurs in plane and convex mirrors, in diverging lenses, or in converging lenses when the object is inside the focal point (F).
Refraction Fundamentals
2a. Refraction is the bending of light as it changes speed moving between media.
2b. Rules for Bending Light:
- (1) Low $\to$ high density = toward the normal.
- (2) High $\to$ low density
Semiconductor Devices Principles: PN Diode, LED, Solar Cell, APD
Here is a detailed explanation of the principle, construction, and working of the following semiconductor devices:
PN Junction Diode
LED (Light Emitting Diode)
Solar Cell
Avalanche Photodiode
1. PN Junction Diode
Principle
A PN junction diode works on the principle of unidirectional current conduction — it allows current to flow in forward bias but blocks it in reverse bias.
Construction
Made by joining P-type and N-type semiconductors.
A depletion region forms at the junction due to diffusion of electrons
Astronomy Fundamentals: Celestial Bodies and Space Travel
Astronomy Fundamentals and Timekeeping
Ancient people used the Sun, Moon, stars, and tools like sundials to track time and seasons.
- A solstice is the longest or shortest day of the year.
- An equinox is when day and night are equal in length.
Models of the Universe
Understanding the structure of the cosmos evolved over time:
- The geocentric model states Earth is at the center of the universe.
- The heliocentric model states the Sun is at the center and planets orbit it.
- Elliptical orbits mean planets move in
Fundamental Concepts in Classical Mechanics Physics
Physical Quantities and Measurement
Physical Quantity: A property of a body or phenomenon that can be measured and expressed by a number and a unit (e.g., 5 m, 10 s, 3 kg). It allows us to describe physical laws quantitatively. A physical quantity is defined either by specifying how it is measured or by stating how it is calculated from other measurable quantities.
Unit of Measurement: A standard reference used for comparing quantities of the same kind. Example: meter (m) for length, second (s) for
Electromagnetic Waves, Sound & Wave Properties
Electromagnetic Waves, Sound & Wave Properties
Electromagnetic waves used in communication with wavelengths between about 1 cm and 20 cm are called (microwaves).
Electric signals that have only two possible values (on and off) are (digital signals).
A(n) (photon) is an electromagnetic wave that behaves like a particle.
Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths between 400 and 750 billionths of a meter that can be detected by the human eye is (visible light).
A system of satellites, ground monitoring
Read MoreSemiconductor Electronics, P–N Junctions, Atomic Models & AC Physics
Semiconductor Electronics
Semiconductor
Semiconductor — These materials whose electrical conductivity lies between a conductor and an insulator are called semiconductors. At absolute zero they behave as insulators and at room temperature they behave as conductors.
Examples: Ge, Si, GaAs, CdS, CdSe, InP, etc.
Classification by Energy Band Theory
In solids there are three energy bands:
- The lower band is completely filled by electrons and is called the valence band (VB).
- The upper band is called the conduction