Immanuel Kant’s Theory of Knowledge: A Synthesis of Rationalism and Empiricism
Philosophical Framework
In 18th-century Europe, thought was diverse. While some noted a shared mentality aligned with Enlightenment values, philosophy saw the decline of classical metaphysical approaches. A strong focus on human problems emerged, particularly in epistemology (theory of knowledge). Political and ethical issues were also important, with Rousseau’s concept of general will influencing Kant’s deontological ethics. Enlightenment philosophers shifted from Descartes’ rationalist method to
Read MoreDescartes’ Philosophy: Doubt, God, and the Criterion of Truth
Descartes’ Philosophy
Notions
1. Doubt and Certainty
Descartes raises the question of Epistemology, the study of knowledge. He proposes that all information should be revised to dispel any suspicion of error, and that the truth is guided by a theoretical method. Methodical Doubt is the use of doubt as a way forward, as a procedure for finding the truth. It involves doubting everything in which the slightest doubt can be found.
This questioning is required by the first rule of his method, which requires
Read MoreHume’s Causality: Empiricism and the Limits of Knowledge
A Treatise of Human Nature
Philosopher David Hume, a contemporary of Newton and Adam Smith, authored A Treatise of Human Nature, later summarized in the Compendium. He proposed a new ‘science of man,’ aiming to explain human understanding through experience, particularly focusing on causality.
Critique of Causality
Hume’s critique of causality is central to his philosophy. As an empiricist, he believed complex ideas arise from simpler ones, tracing these back to sensory impressions. He argued that
Read MoreOrtega y Gasset’s Philosophy: A Critical Reflection of Western Thought
Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955)
José Ortega y Gasset developed his philosophy during the first half of the twentieth century. This period in Europe was marked by political tension between democracy and totalitarianism, leading to events such as the two World Wars, the Russian Revolution, the rise of fascism, and decolonization in Africa and Asia. Spain experienced the loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, resulting in a national crisis in 1898. Ortega lived through the Bourbon Restoration,
Read MoreSocial Contract & Legal Freedom in Kant’s Philosophy
Social Contract in Contractarian Theories
In different contractarian theories, the social contract refers to the expression of a covenant, agreement, or contract by which people hypothetically decided to create a civil, social, peaceful state out of a semi-wild state of nature. It’s supposed that we lived in this state of nature before the social contract.
For Kant, the social contract is a regulative idea of practical reason. It’s only an idea, but with undoubted practical reality. It links the
Read MorePlato’s Philosophy: Ethics, Politics, and Ideas
Plato’s Ethics and Politics
Meaning and Forms of Virtue
Plato’s work centers on justice as the principal political virtue. A key question is whether justice can be taught. While opinions on fairness exist, Plato sought a precise definition of virtue, connecting it to wisdom as the greatest virtue.
Virtue and Harmony of the Soul
Plato believed that justice, a general virtue, is achieved when all parts of the soul reach perfection. He identified four cardinal virtues:
- Prudence: The virtue of making wise