Mill’s Utilitarianism: Utility as the Foundation of Morality
How Mill Defends the Usefulness of Action as the Foundation of Morality
Utilitarianism sets the greatest happiness principle as the moral foundation, stating that actions are right insofar as they tend to promote happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasure.
Faced with the accusation that a life subject to this moral standard would be a life fit only for pigs, Mill replies that human beings have faculties more elevated than
Read MoreA Philosophical Overview: From Kant to Ortega
Kant: Formal Ethics
Kant’s ethics differ from earlier material ethics, which focused on achieving the highest good (happiness, pleasure) through specific rules. Material ethics have three flaws:
- They are empirical (a posteriori), relying on experience, which cannot yield universal principles.
- They are hypothetical imperatives, dependent on the desire for a supreme good (e.g., “If you want X, do Y”).
- They are heteronomous, with reason receiving external instructions, thus lacking freedom.
Kant’s solution
Read MoreGlossary of Cartesian Philosophy: Key Concepts Explained
Glossary of Cartesian Philosophy
Alma (Soul)
Res cogitans (thinking substance): A spiritual substance that is finite because it has a beginning. It is also simple because it cannot be broken down into parts and, therefore, is immortal. A substance independent of the body and does not need it to exist. It is a principle of consciousness, i.e., that by which I am aware. According to Descartes, the soul is more easily known than the body.
Certainty (Certitude)
Act of the spirit recognizing the unqualified
Read MoreEthics, Morality, and the Political Community
Item 9: Moral Actions and Ethical Reflection
Moral Actions
Moral actions are those performed consciously and freely by human beings. As these actions have consequences for others and the environment, they must be subject to moral norms.
Human Behavior
- Habits
- Customs
- Standards
Moral Level
The moral level is composed of rules of conduct designed to regulate the specific actions of individuals. It asks, “What should I do?”
Ethical Standards
Ethical standards involve reflecting on moral standards. They raise
Read MoreFrom Myth to Logos: The Rise of Rational Thought in Ancient Greece
Thinking and Reality
Thinking is about capturing reality and giving it meaning and significance. Humans need to think about ideas. But how can we know reality? Reality, as manifested to our senses, is constantly changing. This poses a problem for knowledge.
Magic-Religious Interpretations
Magic-religious interpretations, both past and present, offer explanations for our existence. They explain the origin of nature and the universe from a divine perspective (Mythical Explanation). From the 7th century
Read MoreCritique of Traditional Metaphysics: Kant’s Transcendental Idealism
Criticisms of Traditional Metaphysics
In the preface to the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant expresses his primary concern with the possibility of metaphysics. Specifically, he questions whether it is possible to secure knowledge about God, freedom, and the immortality of the soul.
There are two reasons for doubting the possibility of metaphysics:
- Science progresses, while metaphysics continues debating the same issues discussed centuries ago.
- Scientists agree on their theories and conclusions, while metaphysicians