Descartes’ Substance vs. Hume’s Empiricism on Knowledge
The Evil Genius Hypothesis
The hypothesis is: Is an evil genius deceiving us and making us err in our own reasoning?
Metaphysics (Descartes): The Substances
Descartes arrives at the existence of three substances, each defined by an attribute:
- Thinking substance (res cogitans) (ego): Its attribute is thought.
- Infinite substance (res infinita) (God): Its attribute is perfection.
- Extended substance (res extensa) (bodies): Its attribute is extension.
Descartes defines substance as that which exists in such
Read MoreAristotle’s Metaphysics: Matter, Form, and Change
Aristotle’s Hylomorphic Theory
The first substance is the individual. It is constituted by essence or species. Aristotle asserts that this world is real and that plurality and change are real, opposing the views of philosophers like Parmenides and Plato. Aristotle introduces the concept of substance becoming or development. The first substance is what becomes, develops, and undergoes a growth process. To explain this, Aristotle argues that substance is composed of matter (hyle) and form (morphe).
Read MoreHume, Kant, Mill: Core Philosophical Concepts
David Hume’s Philosophy
Knowledge and Experience
According to Hume, we have nothing in our minds that we haven’t received through experience. Our perceptions consist of impressions (direct sensory input) and ideas (fainter copies of impressions). Imagination combines and rearranges ideas. The laws of association of ideas explain how ideas connect:
- Similarity
- Contiguity (in time or place)
- Causality (cause and effect)
These laws explain the formation of abstract ideas, which are not directly derived from
Read MoreUnderstanding Theories, Hypotheses, and Scientific Testing
Theories, Hypotheses, and Contrast
The goal of science is to obtain as much information as possible about the phenomena of reality and their interconnections. A phenomenon is defined as anything we can grasp or perceive. Science uses theories, which are complex sets of definitions.
Theories, like definitions, are complex statements explaining how to use or apply a term in relation to other terms. They do not inherently describe reality and are neither true nor false in themselves, but rather trivially
Read MoreRationalism vs. Empiricism: Hume on Knowledge and Morality
Rationalism vs. Empiricism: Origins & Key Differences
Empiricism and Rationalism were prominent philosophical movements, particularly in the 17th and 18th centuries, with rationalism emerging slightly earlier.
- Rationalism: Developed mainly in continental Europe (e.g., France) with thinkers like Descartes, Leibniz, and Spinoza. Key tenets include:
- Belief in innate ideas.
- Emphasis on deduction as the primary mode of inference.
- Concerned with the origin and validity of human knowledge, trusting reason
Ambedkar vs. Gandhi: Caste Annihilation, Hind Swaraj & India
Ambedkar’s Critique of the Caste System
The caste system represents inequality, oppression, and discrimination, fundamentally contradicting democratic principles. It denies individual merit, predetermining one’s role by birth. This system enriches a rigid hierarchy, often illustrated by four main categories (like the ‘broom and earthpot’ analogy signifying fixed, low-status roles). Ambedkar, through movements like the Jat-Pat Todak Mandal, sought its eradication.
Impacts of Caste and Untouchability
- Untouchability: