Kelsen’s Pure Theory of Law and the Grundnorm Concept
Q.2. Pure Theory of Law and the Concept of Grundnorm
Introduction
Hans Kelsen (1881–1973), one of the most influential jurists of the 20th century, developed the Pure Theory of Law as a rigorous attempt to separate law from politics, sociology, and morality. His project was to establish jurisprudence as a “science of norms,” free from ideological or metaphysical contamination. Central to this theory is the concept of the Grundnorm (basic norm), which provides the ultimate foundation for the
Read MoreDislocation Mechanics, Strengthening and Heat Treatment of Metals
Dislocation Types and Partial Dislocations
1. Dislocation types
Partial dislocations — FCC
Frank’s rule → Combination: b1 + b2 → b3. Dissociation: b1 → b2 + b3.
Shockley partials → Energetically favorable when b1^2 + … (b^2 = a^2(u^2 + v^2 + w^2)).
They create stacking faults in FCC (ABCABC) which locally transform the stacking toward HCP (ABABAB).
Sessile dislocations →
- Immobile; Burgers vector b is not in the fault plane.
- Only move by diffusion (climb) and are unlikely to move at low temperature.
Metallurgy Fundamentals: Steels, Phase Diagrams, and Mechanical Properties
Steels & Cast Iron
Cast Iron: >2.1% low melting temperature, good for casting, engine blocks, gears, machines, pans. Steel: <1.4% add=”” elements=”” to=”” change=”” properties,=”” good=”” general=”” properties,=”” bad=”” corrosion=”” res.=”” low=”” carbon=”” steel:=””>1.4%><.3% good=”” formability,=”” weldability,=”” strength,=”” and=”” fracture=”” res. =””>%><.15% used=”” for=”” deep=”” drawing=”” app,=””>.15% used for structures (^strength less form)
Medium Carbon
Essential Materials Science: Properties, Types, and Processing
Polymer Materials: Properties & Types
General Polymer Characteristics
- Low fabrication cost
- Excellent strength-to-weight ratio
- Recyclable
- Good chemical and environmental resistance
Metal Materials: Characteristics & Types
General Metal Characteristics
- High strength-to-weight ratio, especially in large applications
- High rigidity
- Immune to UV degradation
Ferrous Metals
- Composed of greater than 50% Iron (Fe)
- High modulus of elasticity
- High strength
- Low cost
- Quench hardenable
Non-Ferrous Metals
- Good corrosion
Python Word Similarity Models
This document presents Python code for implementing word similarity models based on vector representations and common similarity metrics.
Imports and Utilities
from __future__ import division
import collections
import math
ddict = collections.defaultdictWord Similarity Model Class
A generic model for calculating word similarity, parameterized by two functions: one for producing a vector from a word, and one for comparing two vectors.
class WordSimilarityModel(object):
def __init__(self, get_vector,E-commerce, E-business, DBMS, MIS & SQL Concepts
E-commerce vs. E-business: Key Differences
E-commerce is the buying and selling of goods or services over the internet.
E-business encompasses all business activities conducted online, including E-commerce but also internal processes like inventory management and human resources.
Advantages of E-commerce
- Access to global markets.
- Reduced operational costs.
- Convenience and flexibility for customers.
Disadvantages of E-commerce
- Security and privacy concerns.
- Dependence on technology.
- High competition and lack