The Historical Development of European Integration and Treaties
Historical Context of 20th Century Europe
Europe was politically fragmented, despite historical attempts at unity via conquest (Charlemagne, Napoleon, Hitler). Enlightenment and liberal thinkers proposed peaceful integration:
- William Penn (1693): Early vision of a European Parliament.
- Saint-Simon (1814): Advocated for a European monarch and parliament to maintain peace.
World War I (1914–1918)
This global conflict pitted the Allies against the Central Powers. It was triggered by nationalism, imperial
Read MorePivotal Dates in US History and European Integration (1648–2022)
Foundations of Modern Governance (1648–1830)
- 1648: Peace of Westphalia.
- 1776, July 4: Declaration of Independence.
- 1777: Articles of Confederation.
- 1783: Treaty of Versailles (ending the American Revolutionary War).
- 1786: Shays’ Rebellion.
-
1787:
- June: Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia.
- July: Northwest Ordinance.
- September: Approval of the U.S. Federal Constitution.
- 1788: Ratification of the U.S. Federal Constitution.
- 1789: George Washington elected first U.S. President.
- 1791: Bill of Rights adopted.
Constitutional Powers and Structure of the Republic
The Executive Branch
The President of the Republic: Head of State
The President of the Republic, the Head of State, is elected by direct universal suffrage for a term of five years. He or she may not serve for more than two consecutive terms (Art. 6 Constitution). The voting system is the single-member two-round majority system (Art. 7).
The role of the President is to ensure, through his or her arbitration, the proper government and the continuity of the State (Art. 5). He or she is responsible for
Read MoreThe Birth of the Second Spanish Republic: 1931
The Birth of the Second Spanish Republic (1931)
1. The Configuration of the New Regime
The municipal elections of April 12, 1931, marked a clear shift in the political situation. The election result was mixed: while the aggregate number of monarchist councilors exceeded that of the Republicans nationwide, the monarchists suffered a major defeat in large cities (in Madrid, Republicans tripled their votes, and quadrupled them in Barcelona).
After learning the outcome of the election, on the morning of
Read MoreEuropean Union: Institutions, Bodies, and Symbols
Symbols of the European Union
The European Union is represented by several key symbols:
- The European flag
- The European anthem
- Europe Day
- The motto: “United in diversity”
- The euro (as the currency)
Main EU Institutions
The European Parliament
The European Parliament has 784 members and a President elected by direct universal suffrage for a period of five years. It is organized into:
- Political Groups: Meetings of deputies based on ideological affinities.
- Committees: Composed of deputies from different political
Spain’s 17th Century Crisis: Validos, Revolts, and the Fall of the Habsburgs
The Validos: Royal Favorites in 17th-Century Spain
The system of validos, or royal favorites, was widespread during the 17th century in several European countries, particularly Spain. Their position was not institutional but resulted from a personal appointment; their power lay in the confidence the king placed in them. When this trust declined, the favorite lost all power. This system often created a significant rift between the king and his subjects. A prominent early example was Francisco de Sandoval
Read More