Human Anatomy & Physiology: Skeletal, Muscular, Cardiovascular Systems
Skeletal & Articular System
Anatomical Position
Standing upright, facing forward, feet flat, slightly apart, toes forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward, thumbs pointing away. This position is the reference point for describing movement.
Terms to Describe Movement
- Flexion: Decrease joint angle
- Extension: Increase joint angle
- Abduction: Movement away from midline
- Adduction: Movement toward midline
- Plantar flexion: Pointing toes downward
- Dorsiflexion: Bringing toes upward
- Supination: Palm up
- Pronation:
Machine Learning Clustering: K-Means and Hierarchical Methods
Machine Learning Clustering Fundamentals
Clustering vs. Data Storage
Clustering is a data analysis technique used to discover patterns, contrasting with data storage systems like Firestore, which are designed to store data necessary to run an application or service.
- Data Storage (e.g., Firestore): Stores data to run the app/service.
- Data Analysis (Clustering): Analyzes data to discover patterns (machine learning).
Defining Clustering and Unsupervised Learning
Clustering is the task of grouping data points
Read MoreThe Structure and Function of Muscular Tissue Types
Muscular Tissue: Structure and Components
Muscles are made up of highly specialized, thin, and elongated cells called muscle fibers. The muscle fibers contain specialized cytoplasm called sarcoplasm that contains a network of membranes called the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The muscle fibers may be bounded by the cell membrane called the sarcolemma. Each muscle fiber may contain numerous longitudinal fibrils called myofibrils.
Basic Physiological Properties of Muscle Tissue
- Contractility
- Excitability
- Extensibility
- Elasticity
Types
Read MoreSpinal Biomechanics: Structure, Function, and Load Transmission
The spine is a complex mechanical structure that supports the body, protects the spinal cord, and allows controlled mobility. Its biomechanics are governed by the interaction of bones (vertebrae), joints, intervertebral discs, ligaments, and muscles.
1. Structural Features of the Spine
- Vertebrae: 33 in total (7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral [fused], 4 coccygeal).
- Vertebral bodies bear compressive load.
- Facet (zygapophyseal) joints guide and limit motion.
- Intervertebral Disc (IVD): Acts as
Endocrine Hormones and Musculoskeletal System Function
The Endocrine System: Chemical Messengers
Endocrine glands respond to stimuli by producing hormones transported in the blood throughout the body. Each hormone affects its target cell, which contains specific receptors. Hormones are chemical messengers that activate or stop, accelerate or delay processes within organs. Hormone receptors cause chemical reactions inside the cell, producing a response.
Hypothalamus Function
The Hypothalamus produces nerve signals and hormones, specifically releasing factors
Read MoreMusculoskeletal and Endocrine Pathologies: Arthritis, Spondylitis, and Hormonal Disorders
Joint and Musculoskeletal Disorders
Osteoarthritis (OA)
Degeneration of weight-bearing and finger joints.
Types of Osteoarthritis
- Primary: Associated with weight-bearing stress, obesity, and aging.
- Secondary: Follows trauma or repetitive use.
- Genetics play a role in susceptibility.
Pathological Changes in OA
- Articular cartilage is damaged, leading to the release of enzymes.
- This accelerates cartilage disintegration. Subchondral bone is exposed, leading to the development of cysts, osteophytes, or new bone