Europe Before World War I: Alliances and Revolutions
The Belle Epoque: An Era of Rivalry
The Belle Epoque is the name given to the decades preceding World War I. Much evidence indicates the beginning of an era characterized by competition, national economic rivalries, and imperialism.
An Era of Revolutions
Working conditions improved in most advanced societies: social democratic parties participated in elections to promote reforms.
- In Russia, Tsar Nicholas II ruled as an autocrat in a climate illustrated by pogroms; rapid industrialization provoked misgivings.
Russian Revolution 1905-1917: Causes and Key Players
1. The Socio-Economic Situation
Outline of Russian society:
- Upper class: Nobles and clergy, some industrialists and traders. Dominated the state apparatus and army.
- Middle classes: Hardly present.
- Lower classes: The majority of the population. Recently emancipated serfs and industrial workers lived in very poor conditions. The labor movement was developing, influenced by Marxist ideas like those in the *Communist Manifesto*.
The economy was based on archaic agriculture, with rural overpopulation. Industry
Read MoreKey Figures and Events in Modern Mexican Politics
Key Figures and Events in Modern Mexican Politics
Presidents and Political Leaders
- Vicente Fox: PAN politician elected in 2000. His election ended the PRI’s one-party dominance.
- Cárdenas (and his son): One established the PRI, and the other established the PRD.
- De la Madrid: PRI President during the economic collapse of 1982. Oil prices dropped, destroying the Mexican economy. He requested funds from the IMF, leading to a structural adjustment program. Austerity measures reduced PRI support.
- Salinas:
The Ominous Decade: Absolutism, Succession, and Spanish American Independence
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
Return to absolutism, liberal opposition against terror, economic inefficiency, and pressure from ultra-reactionaries, who formed a right-wing movement against Fernando VII, whose absolutism was considered too moderate.
- Torrijos and Mariana Pineda were sentenced to death. They were liberal activists, processed and executed.
- The so-called “boards of faith” censored and monitored publications for liberal propaganda.
- Restriction of expenditure: Ferdinand distanced himself
Cadiz Cortes: Revolution, Constitution, and Legacy (1808-1812)
The Cadiz Cortes: A Turning Point in Spanish History
During the war years in Cadiz, a political revolutionary process unfolded, marking a break from the absolutism of the past. With Charles IV and Ferdinand VII having renounced the throne, a vacuum of authority emerged, challenging the legitimacy of the monarchy and the acceptance of taxation. The sovereignty of royal power shifted to the people.
The Boards and the Rise of Popular Sovereignty
The Boards demonstrated the spontaneous participation of
Read MoreFrench Revolution: Absolutism to Constitutional Monarchy
Absolutism and its Transformations
Absolutism: In the late seventeenth century, political transformations began in Holland and England, limiting the power of the absolute monarchy. Simultaneously, enlightened ideas led to reform experiences known as enlightened despotism in many countries.
Causes of the French Revolution
The causes of the revolution: By 1789, France faced a deep economic and social crisis. Poor harvests since 1760 caused rising food prices and widespread discontent.