Totalitarianism: Comparing Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany
The totalitarian state, since 1938, aimed to be achieved through a highly bureaucratized corporate organization integrated into government policy. This involved intervention in the economy, often prioritizing class interests over the labor movement. Despite this, the Fascist regime in Italy did not reach the same levels of control, mobilization, and social repression as Nazi totalitarianism. It also wasn’t as successful in economic efficiency, nor did it pursue aggressive expansion until after 1935,
Read MoreBourbon Dynasty: Spain’s Foreign Policy and Colonial Shifts
After the Treaty of Utrecht, Spain’s foreign policy objectives were to regain Gibraltar and Minorca from British control, and to place Bourbon princes in power in Italy. This policy was based on an alliance with France, formalized in several Family Pacts, and a rivalry with England in the Atlantic due to British threats to Spanish possessions in the Indies.
Philip V’s Reign (1700-1756)
Philip V (1700-1756) focused on recovering Italian territories. Initial solo attempts failed, leading to an alliance
Read MoreCold War Key Events and Timeline: A Concise History
The Cold War: A Timeline of Key Events
Containment (1947-1953)
In March 1947, US President Harry S. Truman asked Congress to support the Greek Government against the communists in the Greek Civil War. Truman justified the intervention on the grounds that American national security depended on the containment of communism. This became known as Containment or the Truman Doctrine. That year, the USA created the European Recovery Programme for Europe, nicknamed the Marshall Plan, to revitalize the economy
Read MoreFirst Carlist War: Succession, Conflict, and Liberalism
The Succession Crisis and the Rise of Carlism
Two days after the death of Ferdinand VII, Carlos María Isidro claimed dynastic rights to the Spanish throne (Manifesto of Abrantes). This was the culmination of a succession crisis that began in the final years of Ferdinand VII’s reign. He had no offspring from his first three marriages, so Carlos María, his brother, was in line to inherit the throne. In 1829, the king married his niece, Maria Cristina, who soon became pregnant.
To secure the throne
Read MoreRestoration Europe: Liberalism, Nationalism, and Marxism
Restoration Europe: Liberalism and Nationalism
Following Napoleon’s defeat, the victorious states (Russia, Britain, Prussia, and Austria) convened at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) to restore the old order throughout Europe and reimpose absolute monarchies, where the King held supreme power. The Holy Alliance (1815), a mutual assistance treaty between European monarchs, aimed to suppress any liberal revolutionary threats.
Despite the apparent return to absolutism, the ideals of the French Revolution
Read MoreRoman Army: Caesar, Augustus, Marius Reforms & Organization
The Roman Army: Caesar, Augustus, and Marius
Caesar: Caesar neither reformed Pompey nor anything essential in the army. The cohort tactics were at their peak for former infantry. Caesar never rigidly established rules, but adapted to the circumstances to make the best use of them. He increased the importance of bequests, which were his lieutenants, while adjusting the proportion of the tribunes.
Augustus made a series of reforms in the military:
- The supreme command was given to the prince (Augustus)