The Second Spanish Republic: Constitution, Reforms, and Challenges
The Second Spanish Republic and the 1931 Constitution
The new government was composed of parties that had signed the Pact of San Sebastian, presided over by Alcala Zamora. Immediately, the government began a series of reforms and called for elections to the Constituent Cortes, which the Republican parties won. The Cortes devised the 1931 Constitution. This introduced a fully democratic regime in which all parties could be represented. Its main innovations were:
- The broad recognition of individual
Russian Revolution: Bolsheviks, Civil War, and Lenin’s Legacy
The Bolshevik Revolution
As soon as the new Bolshevik government was formed, Lenin enacted many new laws. For example, divorce was made easier, free education for all was planned, and some of the minority peoples in Russia, such as the Georgians and Ukrainians, were offered more independence. The Bolsheviks claimed to represent the proletariat, the working people, based on the Marxist theory of the dictatorship of the proletariat. Lenin advocated for the Bolshevik party to act as a dictator. Most
Read MoreAbsolutism in Eastern Europe (1462-1740): Austria, Prussia, Russia
Chapter 17: Absolutism in Eastern Europe to 1740
Lords and Peasants in Eastern Europe
The Medieval Background
- During the period from 1050 to 1300, personal and economic freedom for peasants increased, and serfdom nearly disappeared.
- After 1300, lords in eastern Europe revived serfdom to combat their economic woes.
- Laws were passed that bound peasants to the land and to the lord.
- Lords confiscated peasant lands and imposed greater labor obligations on them.
The Consolidation of Serfdom
- Hereditary serfdom
Spain’s Modern Political History: UCD to Present Day
The Democratic Governments
Governments of the UCD
After a stage of consensus, the political situation grew tense due to several factors:
- Problems stemming from the economic crisis and its effects on the people.
- Difficult articulation of a decentralized organization of the state.
- Increased terrorist activity by ETA.
- Coup threats and unrest linked to military sectors of Francoism.
In January 1981, Suárez resigned amidst division within his party and the strength of the opposition.
Coup d’État of 23-F
The
Read MoreCold War: Origins, Characteristics, and Global Impact
The Cold War: The New Post-War Order
Origin and Characteristics of the Cold War
The end of the Second World War, with the defeat of fascist states, marked the beginning of a new era in world history. The Allied victory was not the end of conflict, but the start of a long period of renewed tensions. Disagreements were evident within the winning side, especially between the Americans and Soviets.
Although Britain and France also participated in the allied victory, the very high material and social costs
Read MoreWorld War I: Origins and Impact
Causes and Consequences of World War I
Causes of WWI
- Militarism: The build-up of armed forces to prepare for war. Many countries in Europe were very proud and wanted to defend themselves as well as they could.
- Alliances: Agreements between countries to defend or fight together. Germany built up her armed forces to defend herself against other countries.
- Imperialism: The belief of a country in building up an empire and controlling less powerful countries. Many European countries made agreements or promises