Spain’s Constitutional Journey: From Old Regime to Liberalism
Spain’s Constitutional Transformation: End of the Old Regime
The promulgation of a constitution marked the end of the Old Regime in Spain. During the reign of Carlos IV (1788–1808), the economic situation worsened, and the influence of the French Revolution spread. After Napoleon’s rise in 1799, Spain’s Prime Minister, Manuel Godoy, renewed alliances with France, joining the Continental Blockade against Britain. Despite this, the British defeated both fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805).
In
Read MoreSpain’s 19th Century Political Transformations
Crisis of the Bourbon Monarchy
Under Charles IV, the monarchy faced a crisis. His initial “revolution” against the French led to a declaration of war on France (1793), which ended in failure (1795). In 1799, Godoy allied with Napoleon, authorizing French troops to cross Spain (Treaty of Fontainebleau, 1807). This alliance and Godoy’s policies provoked widespread discontent, culminating in the Aranjuez Mutiny of 1808.
War of Independence (1808-1814)
On May 2, 1808, the people of Madrid rose against
Read MoreMexican Presidents and Key Events: 1970-2024
Mexico’s Political and Economic History: 1970-2024
The Dirty War (1970s Onward)
The Dirty War period in Mexican history, beginning in the 1970s, saw the rise of several guerrilla groups. These groups sought political support for the poor and aimed to end political repression.
Key Presidencies and Events
- José López Portillo (1976-1982): His presidency coincided with the discovery of significant oil reserves. By the end of his term, the dollar was valued at 70 pesos.
- Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado (1982-
Francoism’s Final Years: Spain’s Transition to Democracy
The Crisis of Late Francoism
After the Civil War ended, it gave way to Franco’s dictatorship. In the 1940s, Spain was isolated due to its alignment with Italian fascists and German Nazis, leading the regime to pursue an autarky policy. In the 1950s, however, pacts with the Vatican and the USA led to international recognition.
Economic Reforms and Social Shifts
The Stabilization Plan of 1959, led by the Technocrats (ministers of Opus Dei), embraced capitalist and liberal ideas, pursuing economic goals
Read MoreSpanish Labor and Political Movements in the Restoration Era
The Rise of Labor and Political Movements in Restoration Spain
The Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE)
In 1879, the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE) was founded. Led by Pablo Iglesias and Jaime Vera, a program was drafted with the following objectives:
- Abolition of social classes and the emancipation of workers.
- Transformation of private property into social or collective property.
- Conquest of political power by the working class.
These objectives included claims related to employment policies
Read MoreThe Thirty Years’ War: European Conflict & Its Legacy
The Thirty Years’ War: A Defining European Conflict
The Thirty Years’ War, spanning from 1618 to 1648, began as a series of conflicts between Catholics and Protestants within the Holy Roman Empire. It gradually escalated into a broader struggle among the great powers of Europe for political domination across the continent. The conflict unfolded in several distinct phases:
Key Phases of the Thirty Years’ War
Bohemian Revolt: Protestant Uprising
Protestant nobles in Bohemia expelled Catholics and appointed