Habsburg Spain in the 17th Century: Validos and Major Crises
Seventeenth-Century Habsburgs: Validos and Internal Conflicts
Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II were the monarchs of the Habsburg dynasty that reigned in Spain during the seventeenth century. They are known as the ‘Lesser Austrias’. They commonly employed validos (royal favorites) in the government of the monarchy. A valido was a prime minister with full powers who ruled in the king’s name, often due to the monarch’s neglect, incompetence, or unwillingness. The king placed immense trust in his
Read MoreItaly’s Political System: From Unification to the Albertine Statute
Chapter 5: The Political System of Italy
1. Historical Background
1.1. The Long March Towards Italian Unity
From the mid-nineteenth century, Italy was divided into the kingdoms of Sardinia, the Two Sicilies, the Papal States, and the possessions of Austria and the duchies under its influence. The liberal revolutions that followed the fall of Napoleon (1815) failed, ending with French and Austrian occupation until 1848, the start of the war of independence. However, the Risorgimento, a movement towards
Read MoreArgentina’s Early Nation-Building: Federalism, Independence, and Leadership
Federalism vs. Centralism in Early Argentina (1810-1852)
Between 1810 and 1852, various social groups with differing political projects confronted each other. The fundamental difference lay in the proposed form of political organization for the new state: one advocating centralism and the other federalism.
Political organization can take two primary forms:
- Centralism: All levels of government are subordinate to the central power. Usually, a general scheme unifies law and administration.
- Federalism:
John Locke’s Enduring Legacy: Philosophy, Politics, and Enlightenment Influence
John Locke (1632-1704): Architect of Modern Thought
Historical Context and Influences
A defining experience that profoundly shaped John Locke’s ideological framework was the period of Cromwell’s dictatorship. A primary objective for Locke was to prevent tyranny and safeguard individual rights.
Following this, the monarchy was restored, with Charles II reasserting royal authority over both church and state institutions. Initially, Locke welcomed these changes, hoping for stability.
However, Locke later
Read MoreSecond Spanish Republic: Eras and Key Events
The Second Spanish Republic: A Historical Overview
The birth of the Second Spanish Republic occurred amidst significant economic and political turmoil, including the global crisis of 1929 and the decline of democratic models across Europe.
Provisional Government (1931)
The Second Republic was established with a provisional government in 1931, following the Pact of San Sebastián. Niceto Alcalá-Zamora became President, and representatives included:
- Socialists
- Radicals
- Republicans
- Catalan Nationalists
- Catholics
A
Read MoreThe Rise of Totalitarian Regimes: Fascism and Nazism
Fascism and Totalitarianism in Italy
In 1922, Benito Mussolini became the head of Italy. However, the government was a liberal state, and the Fascist Party initially held no power. Most of the government had allied with those who opposed the Fascists, especially after the assassination of Fascist members.
In 1923, the assassination of Giacomo Matteotti, a socialist leader, marked a critical moment. Despite many separate government parties, the King came out in defense of Mussolini, which initiated
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