The French Revolution and Napoleonic Era
The Girondin Convention
The French Republic was initially led by the Girondins, who implemented universal male suffrage for the National Convention. The Convention tried and executed King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette for treason, leading to a coalition of European monarchies against France.
In 1793, the Republic faced internal counter-revolutionary riots, particularly in the Vendée, and external threats from allied armies.
The Jacobin Convention
In June 1793, the Jacobins seized power, arresting
Read MoreThe Democratic Six-Year Period (1868-1876): A Tumultuous Era in Spanish History
Item 4: The Democratic Six-Year Period (1868-1876)
1. Introduction
The Revolution of September 1868, also known as “The Glorious,” marked the end of the monarchy of Isabella II. The following six years were a highly volatile period in Spanish history. Several political regimes emerged, all seeking a new political and social order. The burgeoning urban bourgeoisie and the emerging labor movement played key roles in this period, often referred to as the “Revolutionary Democratic Sexenio.” This era represented
Read MoreNapoleon and the Restoration Era
The Napoleonic Era
Napoleon Bonaparte implemented a new political system, merging revolutionary ideals with an authoritarian personal style. He declared himself Emperor and attempted to establish a new dynasty across several European nations. His achievements included:
- Creating institutions like the Bank of France
- Imposing a single currency (the Franc)
- Unifying legislation with the Civil Code
- Establishing a professional, government-controlled administration
- Reforming public education
- Signing the Concordat
Decline of the Spanish Habsburgs (17th Century)
The Validos
The validos were royal favorites who essentially acted as kings due to the monarchs’ inability to govern. Kings relied on validos, primarily nobles, because they struggled to manage the complexities of governing. All validos attempted to govern outside of established councils, creating networks of clients (often family and friends appointed to civil service positions), selling offices (leading to corruption), and isolating the kings from reality.
- Philip III – Duke of Lerma and Duke of
Spanish Political Evolution (1808-1814): From Charles IV to the Constitution of Cádiz
Spanish Political Evolution (1808-1814)
Reign of Charles IV (1788-1808)
Context: The French Revolution (1789), the rise of the Republic, and Napoleon’s ascendancy.
- 1793-1795: War of the Pyrenees between Spain and Revolutionary France.
- 1795: Peace of Basel. End of the War of the Pyrenees. Return to family pacts (England/France).
- 1805: Spanish naval defeat at Trafalgar.
- 1807: Treaty of Fontainebleau between Napoleon and Spain (Godoy). Plan to occupy Portugal (English ally) and partition it between Spain
18th Century Spain: Bourbon Reforms and Enlightenment
Chronology
- War of Succession: 1700-1714
- Loss of Gibraltar: 1704
- Peace of Utrecht: 1713
- Death of Philip V: 1746
- Start of Fernando VI’s Reign: 1746
- Transfer of the Casa de Contratación to Cadiz: 1717
- Esquilache Riots: 1766
- Expulsion of the Jesuits: 1767
- American Free Trade Act: 1778
- French Revolution: 1789
Key Enlightenment Figures and Ideas
Thinkers
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Popular sovereignty; the general will.
- Baron de Montesquieu: Separation of powers (legislative, executive, judicial).
- Voltaire: Limited monarchy;