The Russian Revolution: From Tsarism to Stalinism
The February Revolution
In 1914, Russia entered the First World War alongside France and the UK. As the war dragged on, the prestige of Tsar Nicholas II’s regime crumbled. The defeats and the enemy’s advances spread despondency. More and more people blamed Tsarism for the war’s failures. The Bolsheviks opposed the war from the start, and by 1915, the liberal and socialist opposition emerged with force. In the winter of 1916-1917, discontent in the army and cities multiplied due to supply shortages.
Read MoreThe Rise and Fall of Communism: A Global Perspective
The Rise of Real Socialism
The Formation of the Communist Bloc and Stalin’s Strategy
After 1945, the Soviet Union’s prestige peaked as one of the victorious great powers. However, the influence of communist parties remained low in the countries invaded by the Soviet army: East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Albania, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. Stalin forced local communists to cooperate with other political forces in coalition governments. From 1947 to 1953, the Communists seized power through
Read MoreEarly 20th Century Spain: Social and Political Upheaval
CNT:
At the beginning of the twentieth century, anarchist-inspired societies and workers’ unions emerged. In 1907, Workers Solidarity, a federation of apolitical workers’ associations advocating for revolutionary struggle, was founded. It established its own press in 1910 and promoted the creation of the National Confederation of Labour (CNT).
The CNT aimed to expand throughout Spain and provide stability to the anarchist movement. This revolutionary union was based on three principles:
- Independence
Spain: Late 19th & Early 20th Century Politics & Society
The Zanjón Pact (1878): This pact ended the Cuban War of Independence. It included a broad amnesty, the abolition of slavery, and the promise of political and administrative reforms, including Cuban representation in the Spanish parliament.
Political Reform
Regenerationist Movement: Despite its reformist tone, the movement didn’t achieve deep reforms, limiting itself to maintaining the existing system with minimal changes.
Administrative Reform Proposal (Maura): This was the first attempt to reach
Read MoreThe Spanish Civil War: Military Operations and Key Battles
Military Operations
The Spanish Civil War’s military operations can be broadly divided into five stages:
A) The Beginnings: Progress Towards Madrid
The military operations began swiftly. African troops (Legionaries and regulars) crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, and under the leadership of Yagüe, columns marched towards Madrid to connect with the rebel zone in the north of the peninsula. Franco arrived in Toledo in September and October of 1936. The rebels quickly seized control of Western Andalusia
Read MoreThe Second Spanish Republic: Reforms, Achievements, and Challenges
The Second Spanish Republic: 1931-1936
14.2 (Part 1): The Constitution of 1931 and the Biennium Reformista
Rise of the Republic
During the Restoration, the republican movement posed a minimal threat to the Spanish monarchy. However, the failure of Primo de Rivera’s dictatorship paved the way for republican resurgence. In 1926, Republicans Azaña and Lerroux formed the Alianza Republicana. By 1930, they forged the Pact of San Sebastián with socialists and Catalan nationalists to overthrow King Alfonso
Read More