19th Century Spain: From War to Revolution
War of Independence (1808-1814)
Following the French invasion of Spain and the abdication of King Carlos IV in favor of his son, Prince Fernando (later Fernando VII), the Spanish people rose up in resistance. The Defense Council, headed by the Supreme Board representing the King and the Spanish institutions, led the fight against the French occupation. After the fall of Seville, Cádiz became a crucial stronghold due to its strategic location as a peninsula with a wide bay and access to the Spanish
Read MoreKey Figures & Groups of the Spanish Civil War
Military Units and Organizations
The International Brigades
Military units composed of foreign volunteers who fought for the Republicans during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). The first groups were formed by July 1936 with participants from the Barcelona Olympiad, including the Thaelmann Battalion (German), the Gastone Sozzi Giustizia e Libertà (Italian), the Commune of Paris (Franco-Belgian), and the Thomas Mann Battalion (British). The Comintern organized these volunteers of various anti-fascist
Read MoreThe Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera and the Fall of the Spanish Monarchy (1923-1930)
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera and the Collapse of the Monarchy (1923-1930)
International Context
The international context of this period was marked by the crisis of liberal democracies following World War I. These democracies were blamed for the war and faced challenges from both liberal socialism and fascism. Liberal socialism advocated for a strong state governed by a proletarian dictatorship, while fascism promoted an authoritarian state. Although fascism only triumphed in Italy and Germany,
Read MoreThe Spanish Civil War: A Divided Nation
1. Introduction: A Society on the Brink
A Divided Society: Three Policy Options
The period of 1936-1939 was marked by a severe economic crisis, particularly in Europe. While the United States saw some recovery under President Roosevelt’s New Deal policy, Europe faced a deeper crisis that threatened liberal democracies. The rise of fascist powers, first in Italy with Mussolini (1922) and then in Germany with Hitler (1933), created a tense international context.
In Spain, three main policy options emerged:
Read MoreSpanish History: Exploration, Enlightenment, and Crisis
The Discovery of America
The discovery of America was not an unforeseen event, but the result of a series of maritime explorations in search of a new route to India. The causes that prompted the Europeans to search for that continent were:
- Economic (gold and spices)
- Political (prestige for the monarchy)
The Treaty of Alcaçovas divided the Atlantic expansion between Castile and Portugal, reserving the south for the Portuguese. This prevented Castile from following the usual route to reach the East Indies.
Read MoreThe Restoration in Spain (1875-1898): Political Events and Movements
The Restoration: Political Events (1875-1898)
The Proclamation of Alfonso XII and the End of the Carlist War
On December 29, 1874, General Martínez Campos proclaimed Alfonso XII King of Spain. The next day, a provisional government headed by Canovas del Castillo was formed in Madrid. Alfonso XII offered a broad amnesty, inviting all to forget the past and join the constitutional monarchy. One of the former Carlist leaders, Cabrera, accepted the amnesty. In March 1876, Charles VII (the Carlist pretender)