The Reign of Fernando VII (1814-1833)
The Absolutist Sexenio (1814-1820)
Following Napoleon’s defeat and the Treaty of Valençay, Fernando VII returned to Spain. Instead of accepting the liberal Constitution of 1812, he issued the Manifesto of the Persians, backed by the clergy and nobility, and reinstated absolutism. This period saw harsh repression against liberals and reformers. The Congress of Vienna and the Holy Alliance further solidified absolutist power in Europe.
The War of Independence had devastated Spain’s economy. The
Read MoreThe Spanish Habsburgs: Rise and Challenges in the 16th Century
The Empire of Charles V: Internal Conflicts
Communities Revolt
With Charles I (grandson of the Catholic Monarchs), the Spanish crown passed to the Habsburg dynasty. His arrival in Spain in 1517 and the appointment of foreigners to high office (like Adrian of Utrecht as regent) sparked the Revolt of the Comuneros (1520-1522). Major cities, led by Toledo, formed communes comprised of artisans, traders, lower nobility, and clergy. Their demands included Charles’s return to Spain, exclusion of foreigners
Read MoreThe Democratic Sexenio (1868-1874): A Period of Political and Social Upheaval in Spain
The Democratic Sexenio (1868-1874)
Overview
The Revolution of September 1868, known as “The Glorious Revolution,” marked the end of Isabel II’s monarchy and ushered in the Democratic Sexenio (1868-1874), a period of intense political and social upheaval in Spain. This era, characterized by the search for a new political and social order, saw the rise of the petty bourgeoisie and the nascent labor movement.
The Sexenio represented the final stage of Spain’s liberal revolution and an attempt to establish
Read MoreSpain’s Journey to the EU: From Crisis to Integration
Spain’s Integration into the European Union
Economic and Social Challenges of the 1990s
The crisis of the 1990s brought about an increased tax burden, pension reductions, and labor market flexibility. These measures disrupted the existing social peace, leading unions to call a strike on December 14, 1988. By 1992, it appeared doubtful that Spain could meet the convergence criteria for joining the Eurozone. However, after the March 1996 elections, the neoliberal policies of Aznar’s People’s Party government
Read MoreThe Second Spanish Republic: Social and Political Upheaval (1931-1936)
The Second Spanish Republic (1931-1936)
Social and Political Upheaval
Social Problems
The Crisis of ’29 severely impacted Spain from 1930 onwards. The Republic faced a deeply unfavorable economic situation, leading to rising unemployment, business closures, and widespread social conflict. The government, with Largo Caballero (head of the UGT) as Minister of Labor, enacted legislation to protect workers.
In agriculture, a decree compelled landowners to hire local laborers, preventing wage deflation.
Read MoreSpanish War of Independence & Constitution of 1812
1. The Old Regime (18th Century)
The traditional governance of 18th-century European states, particularly in Spain, stemmed from the Middle Ages. This system, known as absolute monarchy, had three key elements:
- Absolute Power: Sovereignty resided solely with the king, who owned the state’s assets and held absolute power, unconstrained by law.
- Class-Based Organization: Society was divided into distinct classes, with the clergy and nobility holding significant power and land ownership.
- Agrarian Economy: