Regencies of Maria Cristina & Espartero (1833-1843): Spanish Politics in Turmoil
Maria Cristina’s Regency (1833-1840)
The Regency of Maria Cristina coincided with the First Carlist War. The Regent resisted implementing liberalism, embracing it only to defend her daughter’s rights. From 1833 to 1835, Christine victories stemmed more from Carlist disorganization than Christine military strength. Politically, the Queen’s call for harmony was largely ignored. Her initial manifesto, advocating for moderate reforms, was deemed insufficient by liberals demanding a constitution and
Read MoreThe Democratic Presidential Term and the Crisis of the Spanish Monarchy (1866-1874)
The Crisis of the Elizabethan Monarchy (1866)
The democratic presidential term is preceded by a crisis of the Elizabethan monarchy motivated by economic and political factors.
The main economic factor in 1866 was a financial and industrial crisis that slowed previous growth, generated higher crop prices, and resulted in social unrest.
Political factors included the veto of progressive policies, unionists departing from conservatives after the uprising of San Gil, and government corruption (opposed
Read MoreAbsolutism, Liberalism, and the Reign of Ferdinand VII
The Restoration of Absolutism (1814-1820)
After Napoleon’s defeat, Ferdinand VII returned to Spain in March 1814. While liberals hoped for his immediate return to Madrid and adherence to the Constitution, Ferdinand, influenced by absolutists, chose Valencia. Sixty-nine absolutist members issued the Manifesto of the Persians, demanding the annulment of all measures approved in Cadiz and a return to the Old Regime. Emboldened by the army’s support and popular enthusiasm, Ferdinand issued a decree
Read MoreThe Spanish Constitution of 1978: A Consensus-Based Foundation for Democracy
The Drafting of the 1978 Spanish Constitution
The “Magnificent Seven”—Gabriel Cisneros, Miguel Herrero y Rodríguez de Miñón, and José Pedro Pérez-Llorca (UCD); Gregorio Peces-Barba (PSOE); Manuel Fraga (AP); Miquel Roca i Junyent (Minority Catalana); and Jordi Solé Tura (PSUC)—were the key figures in drafting the Constitution. Notably, Basque nationalists were excluded, a point of contention later. The drafting process was intense, driven by the understanding that the Constitution would
Read MoreSpanish 19th Century: From Absolutism to Liberalism
Causes of Latin American Emancipation
The 17th-century crisis in Spain fueled Latin America’s alienation. Reduced trade fostered inter-American connections and decreased reliance on Spain, alongside reduced Spanish migration. Creoles gained economic, social, and religious power, eventually seeking political influence. The 18th-century Bourbon reforms faced Creole resistance. The Bourbons’ absolute monarchy clashed with Enlightenment ideals, and new viceroyalties (Nueva Granada and Río de la Plata)
Read MoreThe Rise of Feudalism in Medieval Europe
The Carolingian Empire and Its Collapse
In the late 8th century, Charlemagne, King of the Franks, united much of Western Europe. He proclaimed himself Emperor in 800 and developed written laws. After Charlemagne’s death, the empire was divided into different kingdoms, leading to instability and invasions by Vikings, Muslims, and Hungarians.
The Rise of Vassalage and Feudalism
The weakened monarchs needed help from nobles to maintain order and defend their territories. This led to the system of vassalage,
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