First Carlist War: Succession, Conflict, and Liberalism
The Succession Crisis and the Rise of Carlism
Two days after the death of Ferdinand VII, Carlos María Isidro claimed dynastic rights to the Spanish throne (Manifesto of Abrantes). This was the culmination of a succession crisis that began in the final years of Ferdinand VII’s reign. He had no offspring from his first three marriages, so Carlos María, his brother, was in line to inherit the throne. In 1829, the king married his niece, Maria Cristina, who soon became pregnant.
To secure the throne
Read MoreRestoration Europe: Liberalism, Nationalism, and Marxism
Restoration Europe: Liberalism and Nationalism
Following Napoleon’s defeat, the victorious states (Russia, Britain, Prussia, and Austria) convened at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) to restore the old order throughout Europe and reimpose absolute monarchies, where the King held supreme power. The Holy Alliance (1815), a mutual assistance treaty between European monarchs, aimed to suppress any liberal revolutionary threats.
Despite the apparent return to absolutism, the ideals of the French Revolution
Read MoreRoman Army: Caesar, Augustus, Marius Reforms & Organization
The Roman Army: Caesar, Augustus, and Marius
Caesar: Caesar neither reformed Pompey nor anything essential in the army. The cohort tactics were at their peak for former infantry. Caesar never rigidly established rules, but adapted to the circumstances to make the best use of them. He increased the importance of bequests, which were his lieutenants, while adjusting the proportion of the tribunes.
Augustus made a series of reforms in the military:
- The supreme command was given to the prince (Augustus)
Philip II and the Hispanic Monarchy: Power, Conflicts, and Iberian Unity
Philip II and the Hispanic Monarchy: Iberian Unity
Objectives and the Black Legend
Philip II (1556-1598) embodies the absolute monarch, establishing his court in Madrid and constructing the monumental Escorial residence. Inheriting his father’s policy objectives, excluding the title of emperor, Philip II focused on securing European hegemony and defending his inherited territories.
He shifted from his father’s universal policy to a confessional one, prioritizing the defense of Catholicism. While religious
Read MoreSpain’s 1876 Constitution & Cánovas’ Restoration System
Spain’s Restoration: Cánovas & the 1876 Constitution
Causes and Origins of the Restoration
The failure of the First Spanish Republic led the bourgeoisie towards conservative positions, particularly favouring a restoration of the monarchy to re-establish order and political stability. Cánovas del Castillo became the main architect of this system. He planned the return of the Bourbon dynasty to Spain and the throne for Alfonso XII, seeking international support (like the Vatican). The Bourbon
Read MoreAthens vs. Sparta: Democracy, Oligarchy, and Ancient Greek Conflict
Athenian Democracy: Origins and Structure
At the end of the Archaic Period, early forms of democracy emerged in Greece. However, significant portions of the population, including women, slaves, and non-citizens (those not born into the citizenry, e.g., in Sparta), were excluded from political participation.
The Athenian Model of Democracy
- The Athenian democratic system was introduced around 508 BC.
- It established an Assembly where every eligible male citizen had the right to vote and speak.