Rise of Fascism and Authoritarian Right: Causes, Features, and Alternatives
Fascism and Context: The Authoritarian Right
Early twentieth-century European society experienced catastrophes: a war ending traditional empires, a Russian social revolution threatening new political regimes, and economic depression. Many blamed the old liberal system. Institutions like parliaments and constitutions encouraged mass demands for rights and economic democracy, yet liberals struggled during the 1929 crisis.
During the 1920s and 30s, right-wing and authoritarian political and social movements
Read MoreKey Figures and Events in Modern Spanish History
Manuel Godoy
A native of Badajoz, Godoy joined the Civil Guard of King Carlos III. He befriended the future Charles IV and Maria Luisa of Parma. When they ascended to the throne, he rose to several positions, becoming minister of state and the king’s favorite. After the French invasion of Catalonia, he signed the Peace of Basle (1795). Godoy was named Prince of Peace. By the first Treaty of San Ildefonso (1796), Spain and France united against England. The military failures of San Ildefonso (1800)
Read MoreFranco’s Spain: Dictatorship, Economy, and International Relations
Overview: Franco’s regime established a military dictatorship characterized by authoritarianism, social conservatism, and the suppression of political freedoms. The Catholic Church and Spanish nationalism played paramount roles.
Social Protection: The regime protected four major groups: the military, the Catholic Church, Falangists, and Monarchists. Franco aimed to maintain a balance of power without consolidating absolute authority. Social protection extended to large landowners, financial-industrial
Read MoreTragic Week of Barcelona: 1909 Letter & Analysis
Charter
The text is a primary source, a private letter of political nature, dated July 31, 1909. This letter explains the general strike in Catalonia caused by the deployment of reservists. After the strike began, churches were burned. Two days later, barricades appeared, and civilians were fired upon, leading to the arrival of troops who occupied the central districts and then the suburbs. However, Radical Party supporters proclaimed the Republic. Essayist José Pijoan wrote this letter to Catalan
Read MoreReign of Ferdinand VII: Absolutism, Liberalism, and Succession
Stages of Ferdinand VII’s Reign
1. The Absolutist Sexennium (1814-1820)
Following the Peninsular War, Spain saw a restoration of the Old Regime. The Cadiz Constitution was abolished, and absolutism was reinstated. Those who opposed this were exiled, imprisoned, or purged from public office. The king, advised by a close circle, ruled according to his will, amidst a backdrop of economic ruin and conspiracies.
2. The Constitutional Triennium (1820-1823)
After the successful pronouncement of Riego, the
Read MoreKey Events and Figures of the French Revolution
The Political Groups
The revolutionaries envisioned the nation’s transformation in various ways. Within the Constituent Assembly, the constitutionalists, led by Mirabeau and La Fayette, exerted considerable influence. They advocated for a monarchy with moderate constitutional constraints. A segment of the aristocracy aligned with this group.
- The Girondins represented the moderate sector. Their most prominent figure was Jacques Pierre Brissot, and key members belonged to the upper class of the Gironde,