18th & 19th Century Revolutions & Transformations
18th & 19th Century Revolutions & Transformations
The Enlightenment
Illustration: The intellectual movement of the 18th century, drawing from Locke and Newton, challenged absolutism and proposed the division of powers and scientific methods. It defended observation, reason, and human knowledge as tools for education and progress.
Philosophers:
- Montesquieu: Defended the separation of powers.
- Rousseau: Defined the social contract and established the principle of national sovereignty through voting.
Spain’s Golden Age: Habsburgs, Economy, and Culture (16th Century)
The Empire of Charles V
Charles I (1516-1556), eldest son of Philip of Habsburg and Joanna, heiress of the Catholic Monarchs, was proclaimed king in Brussels after his grandfather’s death. He inherited the Austrian Habsburg dynasty, facing challenges such as:
- High vulnerability due to widely scattered territories.
- Difficulty unifying laws across diverse territories with unique institutions.
Internal conflicts:
- Comuneros Revolt: Opposition to foreign policy and the emperor’s influence. Demands included
Franco’s Spain: Dictatorship, Isolation, and Economic Transformation
Post-Civil War Spain: Franco’s Dictatorship (1939-1975)
Following the devastating Spanish Civil War, General Francisco Franco established a nationalist dictatorship that lasted until his death in 1975. This period coincided with World War II, where Spain aligned itself with fascist powers, leading to international isolation after the war.
First Phase (1939-1945): Fascist Influence and Autarky
During the initial years, Spain mirrored the totalitarian states of its allies, implementing economic autarky
Read MoreFerdinand VII’s Reign: Absolutism, Liberalism, and Crisis in Spain
Reign of Ferdinand VII (1814-1833)
Ferdinand VII’s reign was marked by political repression, economic crisis, and military uprisings. It can be divided into three main stages:
1. Restoration of Absolutism (1814-1820)
Following the Treaty of Valençay in December 1813, Ferdinand VII returned to Spain in March 1814. He promptly annulled the liberal Constitution of 1812, marking the beginning of an absolutist regime. Key events include:
- The Manifesto of the Persians, supporting the king’s absolute power.
Exploring Iconic Ancient Structures: Parthenon, Doryphoros, and More
The Parthenon
The work that we will discuss this week is the Parthenon in Athens. The main temple, the Parthenon, located on the Acropolis, was used to house the chryselephantine statue of Athena Parthenos. It was built by Callicrates under Ictinus and monitored by Phidias between 447-432 BC during the “Golden Age” of Athens under the rule of Pericles. This temple was part of the reconstruction of the Acropolis after it was destroyed by the Persians during the Wars of Medes and is the leading exponent
Read MoreInterwar Period: Economic Crisis, Rise of Fascism, and Nazism
The Difficulties of the War
There was a contraction of demand and overproduction, leading to a consumption crisis. Regarding international relations, there was an imbalance. Inflation was due to high credits granted and excessive emission of paper money, which led to currency devaluations. To solve the economic instability, the Genoa Conference convened, remembering where the rules were set, with dollars and pounds as convertible currencies. Currency instability continued because of inflation caused
Read More