The Road to World War I: Schlieffen Plan and July Crisis
World War I: Origins and the Road to Conflict
World War I, also known as the First World War or the Great War, was a global conflict originating in Europe that lasted from July 28, 1914, to November 11, 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilized in one of the largest wars in history. Over 9 million combatants and 7 million civilians died as a result of the war (including the victims of a number of genocides), a casualty rate exacerbated by the belligerents’
Read MoreThe Second Spanish Republic: 1931–1936 Political Eras
The Constitution of 1931 and the Second Republic
Following the proclamation of the Republic, elections for the Constituent Cortes were held on June 28, 1931. Although the text of the Constitution was not entirely consensual, the Cortes were chosen by a near majority of the left-leaning parties. The main objective of the 1931 Constitution was to create a democratic political system with a socialist ideology. Notably, it established a precedent for regional autonomy, a concept later reflected in the
Read MoreThe Origins of the Cold War: Division, Conflict, and Crisis
The Maximum Tension: Early Cold War Conflicts
The Economic Division of Europe
The Marshall Plan
The U.S. government devised a strategy to revive the economies of European countries that were favorable, which was named the Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan included almost all Western European countries except Spain, as the Franco dictatorship was considered anti-democratic. The United States scheme had two objectives:
- To improve living standards in Europe and thus ward off revolutionary movements.
- To maintain
The End of the Cold War, Decolonization, and Spain (1939-1991)
Theme 7: The End of the Cold War (1968–1991)
Détente (1968–1979)
- The Détente period marked a reduction in tensions between the USA and the USSR, although communist influence continued to spread in Latin America and Africa.
- The 1973 Oil Crisis caused a global economic downturn as oil prices rose dramatically, leading to inflation and economic restructuring.
Renewed Conflict (1979–1985)
- The Cold War escalated again in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
- Ronald Reagan, US President from 1981 to 1989,
20th Century Turning Points: Revolutions, Depression, and Dictatorships
The Tsarist Autocracy and Russian Society
In the early twentieth century, the Russian Empire survived under monarchical absolutism, known as the Tsarist autocracy.
Characteristics of Tsarist Rule
The Tsar ruled by decree, was not subject to any constitution, and did not have to answer to a parliament. Control of the Empire was assured by the bureaucracy, the army, and the Orthodox Church.
Economic and Social Structure
Agriculture was the main economic activity. Land was concentrated in the hands of a
Read MoreEstablishing the Second Spanish Republic: 1930-1933 Reforms
The End of the Dictatorship and the Republic’s Proclamation
Following Primo de Rivera’s resignation, the return to the previous regime’s dictatorship was impossible for three reasons:
- The dynastic parties had lost their organizational structure and were discredited.
- The monarch was unpopular, because public opinion compared his figure unfavorably to that of the dictator.
- The anti-dynastic forces took a united initiative, which culminated in the Pact of San Sebastián (1930).
Republicanism until 1931
Read More