World War II: Causes, Major Events, and Conclusion
Causes of World War II
Impact of the Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles fostered feelings of humiliation among Germans and Italians, leading to:
- A desire for revenge.
- The rise of dictatorial political systems.
- A drive for a new war to gain economic and political dominance in Europe.
Totalitarian Regimes’ Desire for War
Fascist regimes developed expansionist policies:
- They strengthened their armies.
- They encouraged militarism.
- They engaged in an intense arms race.
Escalating Aggression in the 1930s
Authoritarian
Read MoreIndustrial Revolution: Transport, Trade, and Capitalism’s Rise
Railroads and Steamboats: 18th Century Innovations
In the mid-eighteenth century in Britain and parts of Europe, there was an improvement in traditional communication methods. Initially, the railroad was used in mines to transport mineral ore. The first innovations included a new system of iron rails and wheels with flanges that prevented the derailment of the railroad. However, the most innovative development was Stephenson’s locomotive (1829), which propelled the railroad using a steam engine.
Read MoreSpain’s Transition: Economy, Society & 1978 Constitution
Spain’s Transition Economy
Looking back at 1973, Spain faced the following economic situation:
- GDP growth stood at 8%.
- The unemployment rate did not exceed 2%.
- Foreign exchange reserves amounted to 6,000 billion Pesetas (Note: currency assumed).
- Inflation was running at 12%.
The underlying reasons for Spain’s economic vulnerability at this time included:
- A relatively closed economy, limiting international trade and competition.
- An inequitable public sector, potentially implying high or poorly structured
Scotland & Ireland: Union, Clearances, Famine, Home Rule Era
Scotland After the Act of Union
- Restrictions on the Highland lifestyle (lifted in 1782).
- Scottish Enlightenment: Adam Smith, David Hume, William Cullen, William Robertson.
- Expansion of trade, banking, and industry.
- The Industrial Revolution (James Watt, a Scot); shipbuilding.
- Development of refrigerated ships: beef from overseas became cheaper than Scottish beef, leading to rural depopulation.
Yet the population grew from 1 million (1700) to 1.5 million (1800) and then to 4.5 million (1900).
Highland Clearances
Read MoreSpain’s Canovist System: Restoration Politics & 1876 Constitution
The Canovist System: Political Restoration
Cánovas del Castillo was a pragmatic, liberal-conservative politician who designed a political system intended to secure the Bourbon throne and prevent power struggles among liberal factions. The Canovist system was based on two fundamental principles:
- The Crown, representing tradition and authority, guaranteeing social order, continuity, and stability.
- The Cortes (Parliament) and liberty, representing the popular will.
Core Principles and Mechanisms
To ensure
Read MoreSpain: Ferdinand VII’s Absolutism & Isabella II’s Ascent
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
French Intervention and Repression
At the request of Ferdinand VII and mandated by the Holy Alliance, France intervened in Spain in 1823. The invading army, known as the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis under the command of the Duke of Angoulême, successfully restored Ferdinand VII as an absolute monarch. This task was relatively easy, as the Spanish populace largely did not resist.
Following the restoration, severe repression was unleashed against the Liberals.
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