Liberalism and Nationalism: The Age of Revolutions
The Era of Revolutions
The Eighteenth Century witnessed several political developments that transformed Europe and America, marking the beginning of the modern world.
- The birth of the United States, stemming from the American Revolution, was deeply influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment.
- France led the Great Revolution (1789), which ended the Ancien Régime. Napoleon Bonaparte subsequently subdued most of Europe with his armies, simultaneously spreading revolutionary ideas.
- The Congress of Vienna
Political Turmoil: Spain’s Second Republic and the Path to Civil War
The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
From the proclamation of the Republic, social conflicts were constant. Workers joined anarchist unions. Employers pressured the government, which, unwilling to lose control, used law enforcement to repress strikes. Clashes between workers, mining anarchists, the Civil Guard, and the Army in 1932 resulted in a dozen deaths and tens of injuries.
The Right restructured around Acción Popular, led by Gil Robles, which gained significant presence among Catholics and monarchists.
Read MorePhilip IV’s Reign: Crisis, Rebellions, and Olivares’ Reforms
The Crisis of 1640: A Turning Point for Spain
In 1640, a confluence of factors led to the fall of Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares (1643), and imperiled the very empire of Philip IV. This period was marked by widespread unrest and challenges to the Crown’s authority.
The Catalan Revolution (1640-1652)
The Catalan Revolution (1640-1652) was a direct consequence of the Unión de Armas (Union of Arms), a policy that aimed to compel all kingdoms to contribute to the formation of a unified army.
Read MoreMedieval Iberian Peninsula: Al-Andalus and Christian Kingdoms
The Iberian Peninsula: From Visigoths to Christian Kingdoms
The Muslim Conquest and Al-Andalus (8th Century)
- Lieutenant of Musa ibn Nusayr: Tariq ibn Ziyad led the initial Muslim forces.
- Muslim Arrival in the Iberian Peninsula: The year 711 marked the beginning of the Muslim conquest.
- Causes of Rapid Muslim Conquest:
- Superiority of Muslim military tactics and organization.
- Internal conflicts and divisions within the Visigothic Kingdom.
- Support from Jewish communities and some Visigothic nobles, who surrendered
Spanish Civil War: Origins and Global Impact
The Outbreak of the Spanish Civil War
The military uprising began in North Africa on July 17, 1936, led by General Franco. The next day, it extended to the Iberian Peninsula with support from various fascist and right-wing political groups. The insurrection was justified by the perceived need to end a government considered illegitimate and to prevent the collapse of national unity.
The electoral failure of the right in the 1936 elections accelerated the organization of the coup. General Mola, directing
Read MoreFrench Revolution’s Aftermath: Terror, Directory, and European Restoration
The Reign of Terror (1793-1794)
During this period, innocent people were put to death, and many others were beaten. Victims were often forced to comply and then left to resist for their lives. This era of terror began in 1793 and concluded in 1794.
Revolutionary Societal Changes
The revolutionary spirit ushered in a new era. This included:
- A new calendar
- The replacement of state festivals and other religious symbols with those of a revolutionary character
- Significant changes in fashion
- The adoption of