France 1789: Social Tensions & Revolutionary Dawn
France in 1789: An Absolute Monarchy
In 1789, France, under King Louis XVI, was an absolute monarchy and one of Europe’s wealthiest and most powerful nations. Under the Ancien Régime, the king shared power and prerogatives with the first two privileged classes, or estates: the nobility and the clergy.
The Privileged Estates: Nobility and Clergy
The nobility, the Second Estate, by heritage from medieval times, owned vast lands and held the highest positions in the church, government, and army. Their
Read MoreFranco’s Spain: Dictatorship, Opposition, and Democratic Dawn
Franco’s Dictatorship in Spain (1939-1975)
Rise and Nature of the Francoist Regime
Franco’s dictatorship in Spain (1939-1975) emerged as a consequence of the Spanish Civil War, which the Nationalists won. Francisco Franco was established as the dictator, introducing a military-style dictatorship. This regime represented a deeply conservative reaction against processes initiated during the Second Republic, which were perceived as a threat by conservative elements.
Economic Shifts and Societal Evolution
In
Read MoreAmerica’s Great Depression & Roosevelt’s New Deal Legacy
The Great Depression: An American Crisis
Seeds of Economic Turmoil
The industrialization process in the United States started after the Civil War. Between the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, American economic expansion was at its peak. However, this economic growth ended with the Great Depression, which began as a financial crisis in Wall Street in 1929.
The Depths of the Depression
The Great Depression was the worst economic downturn in the history of the industrialized
Read MoreSpain’s Second Republic: Formation, Reforms & Turmoil
The Second Spanish Republic: Dawn and Foundation
Social and Political Underpinnings
When King Alfonso XIII abdicated and left Spain, a provisional government was established, proclaiming the Second Spanish Republic on April 14, 1931. This government aimed to reflect the agreements reached at the Pact of San Sebastián. Key political forces supporting the new republic included the Radical Party, Radical Socialists, Socialists, and regionalist groups like the Catalan Esquerra and Galician ORGA (Organización
Read MorePath to WWI: Alliances, Crises, and Balkan Tensions
Pre-WWI: European Alliances & Rising Tensions
The Shifting European Alliances
Germany was the first major power to begin practicing a policy of alliances, primarily to isolate France. This led to a complex web of treaties across Europe:
- The League of Three Emperors: Signed between Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary, this league was weakened by clashes between Russia and Austria-Hungary over control of the Balkans. Russia, encouraging the independent aspirations of Slavic peoples within the Turkish
Bourbon Reforms: 18th Century Spanish State & Society
The New Bourbon State in Spain
The domestic policy of the Bourbons differed significantly from that of their predecessors. The assertion of state power necessary for these reforms was also intended to bolster Spain’s influence in international affairs.
During the eighteenth century, notable intellectuals emerged to take charge of reform projects. Their names are well known: Feijoo, Mayans, Campomanes, Jovellanos, etc. However, this intellectual movement, though representing a minority of the population,
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