Spain’s Transition to Democracy: 1975-2000
The Death of Franco and the Monarchy of Juan Carlos I
This period begins with the monarchy of Juan Carlos de Borbón. At first, it was hoped that the Franco dictatorship would continue, but the democratic opposition pressed to bring democracy with political freedoms to Spain. In January 1976, the country was affected by waves of strikes in various domestic points. In March, the tension rose after three months of strikes; three workers were killed by the police, and the funeral led to massive unrest.
Read MoreUnderstanding Nationalism, Old Regime, and European History
Nationalism: An Ideology and Movement
Nationalism is an ideology and a social and political movement that emerged with the concept of the nation in the contemporary age, during the Age of Revolutions. It is based on two basic principles regarding the relationship between nation and state:
- The principle of national sovereignty: the nation is the only legitimate basis for the state.
- The nationality principle: each nation should form its own state, and state boundaries should match those of the nation.
World War I: Key Battles, Strategies, and Turning Points
Quick War, 1914
Germany took the initiative in the war with a plan to launch its army through Belgium and Luxembourg to quickly subdue France. Simultaneously, Austro-Hungarian and German forces would hinder the Russians. Once France was defeated, all German forces would be redirected to Russia.
The campaign against France had two phases. In the first, the Germans entered France through Belgium and Luxembourg. While initially successful, these advances were not decisive, and the French and British
Read MoreLiberalism’s Constitution: Democracy’s Evolution in Britain and France
The Constitution of Liberalism: Britain and France
In Britain and France, democracy made slow progress. Universal male suffrage and religious freedom were endorsed, freedom of expression developed, and modern political parties emerged. The concession of the vote to all men provoked significant changes in party politics. Socialist parties began to gain parliamentary representation, advocating for workers’ rights.
Women continued to lack rights, including the right to vote, and remained legally subjected.
Read MoreNapoleon Bonaparte: Rise, Reign, and Fall of an Emperor
Napoleon Bonaparte: Emperor, Statesman, and Military Leader
Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Ajaccio, Corsica, then a territory of France. He was the son of Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer, and Letizia Ramolino, both descendants of noble families, though without significant fortune.
He studied at the Military School in Brienne, Aube, and then at the École Militaire in Paris, where he obtained the rank of second lieutenant of artillery. A successful strategy during the siege of Toulon in 1793 led to victory
Read MoreReign of Elizabeth II: Reforms, Revolts, and Revolution
There were some reforms, including a second confiscation by Madoz (finance minister), this time of communal lands, which the people used to pick fruit and firewood. This led to peasant revolts. A new constitution was drafted but not implemented because in 1856, Queen Elizabeth dissolved the Parliament and called new elections. The military leader O’Donnell was elected as president, thus ending the Two Progressive period. During O’Donnell’s third period as president, leading the Liberal Union party,
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