Ferdinand VII’s Reign: Absolutism, Liberalism, and Crisis in 19th Century Spain
The Restoration of Absolutism in Spain (1814-1820)
After the Treaty of Valençay, which restored his throne, Ferdinand VII returned to Spain amidst popular enthusiasm, hailed as “the Desired One.” He was met with cries of “Down with the Constitution of Cádiz, Long Live Absolutism!” from absolutist deputies in Cádiz. In May 1814, General Elío had the Manifesto of the Persians published. Following this, Ferdinand VII, in his first act, suspended the Constitution of 1812 and other Gaditano decrees,
Read MoreFranco’s Spain: Regime Foundations and Global Shifts
Foundations of Francoism
Franco assumed power, becoming the Chief of State and supreme commander of the Army. He oversaw legislative and judicial functions.
- Only one legal party existed: FET y de las JONS.
- Individual freedoms were suppressed.
- The nationalist dictatorship was supported by the army, the Catholic Church, big business, landowners, and a large part of the middle class.
- Severe repression characterized the regime’s early years. Republicans were sentenced to forced labor or executed.
- The publication
Spain’s Political Evolution: From Transition to 21st Century
The UCD Government and the 23-F Coup (1979-1982)
After the constitutional consensus, the political situation was marked by various factors, including:
- Problems in tackling the economic crisis and its effects on the hard-hit population.
- A new decentralized state organization.
- Escalating terrorist actions, especially by ETA.
- Unrest and coup threats from ideologically linked military sectors.
In January 1981, Adolfo Suárez presented his resignation as President of the Government due to divisions within
Read MoreGlobal Resistance and the Road to World War I
Early nineteenth-century Europeans often viewed indigenous peoples as savage natives, believing themselves superior to all others. Despite the organizational and technological superiority of some local forces, such as the West Florida troops, European empires imposed their will globally, even on established powers like China and the Ottoman Empire.
Armed Resistance Against Colonial Domination
Notable examples of armed resistance against colonial domination include:
- The Zulu (South Africa): The Zulu,
Latin American History: Civilizations, Conquest, and Independence
Ancient Civilizations of Latin America
Olmec Civilization: Pioneers of Mesoamerica
The Olmecs are considered the first major civilization in Mesoamerica. They were known for their colossal head sculptures, intricate glyphs, and codices. Their creation story, the Popol Vuh, influenced later cultures.
The Mayan Civilization: Innovation and Ritual
The Mayans developed advanced technology and established powerful city-states, particularly in the Yucatán Peninsula. Their cities featured elaborate ball courts
Read MoreLiberalism and Nationalism: The Age of Revolutions
The Era of Revolutions
The Eighteenth Century witnessed several political developments that transformed Europe and America, marking the beginning of the modern world.
- The birth of the United States, stemming from the American Revolution, was deeply influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment.
- France led the Great Revolution (1789), which ended the Ancien Régime. Napoleon Bonaparte subsequently subdued most of Europe with his armies, simultaneously spreading revolutionary ideas.
- The Congress of Vienna