19th Century Europe: Restoration, Liberalism & Nationalism
Key 19th Century European Concepts
Restoration
A return to the political system of the Ancien Régime imposed by the victorious European countries after Napoleon’s defeat in 1815. It was led by the Congress of Vienna, and its main principles were absolutism, maintaining a balance of power in Europe, the right to intervene in other countries, and restoring the legitimacy of kings to their thrones.
Holy Alliance
One of the two European alliances formed to enforce the agreements made by the Congress of
Read MoreSpain’s Democratic Board Manifesto 1974
The Democratic Board Manifesto (1974)
This manifesto, drafted illegally and made public on July 29, 1974, announced the creation of the Board, consisting of democratic parties and organizations of the anti-Franco opposition. It should be noted that at that time, General Franco was hospitalized, and for this reason, was forced to temporarily transfer power to Juan Carlos. Franco returned to assume the leadership of the state until his death on November 20, 1975.
The aim of the manifesto was to prepare
Read MoreSpain’s Political Leaders: Franco Era to Democracy
Key Figures in Spain’s Modern Political History
Manuel Gutiérrez Mellado
A Lieutenant General and a key military figure during Spain’s transition to democracy. As First Vice President of the Government for Defense Affairs (appointed by Adolfo Suárez in 1976), he played a crucial role in military reforms, including repealing the outdated military ordinances of Carlos III and replacing them with new ones. He is famously remembered for his courageous confrontation with Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Tejero
Read MoreFrench Revolution: Causes, Events & Radical Change
The French Revolution: A Turning Point
In 1789, a historical process developed in France that destroyed the economic and social foundations of the Old Regime and eliminated the absolute monarchy. The ideas that drove the French Revolution influenced subsequent liberal and socialist revolutionary movements.
Seeds of Revolt: Pre-Revolutionary France
France was a country grappling with significant social conflict and a monarchical state in crisis. The French state suffered from a severe financial crisis,
Read MoreSpain’s Restoration: Cánovas, Alfonso XII & 1876 Constitution
The Spanish Restoration System (1874-1923)
The Cánovas System, 1876 Constitution & Party Dynamics
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo began preparing for the monarchy’s restoration by founding circles, creating supportive groups, and using press propaganda for the Bourbons’ return. Alfonso XII was presented to the public through the Sandhurst Manifesto. Following the pronunciamiento of Martínez Campos at Sagunto, Alfonso XII was proclaimed King of Spain. This appointment, positioning him as a peacemaker,
Read MoreIberian Peninsula: Early Hominids, Al-Andalus, Reconquista
Hominization Process in the Iberian Peninsula
Prehistory: A period spanning from the appearance of the first human ancestors until the invention of writing. It is divided into the Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Metal Ages. This period includes the process of hominization.
Hominid: A representative of the biological family related to Homo sapiens. Hominids split from other primates in Africa approximately 8.1 million years ago.
The chronology of the oldest human settlement in the Iberian Peninsula and
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