Key Historical Terms: Early Modern Era to Imperialism
Early Modern Europe: Key Concepts
Political Systems & Society
Ancien Régime
A period covering the 17th and 18th centuries. During this time, European monarchs became more powerful; a more open economy was created; humanism developed; advances in science and philosophy were widespread; and new artistic styles emerged.
Absolute Monarchy
A political system in which the crown had unlimited authority, believed to be divinely granted. The king controlled the government and intervened in the economy, introducing
Read MoreGlobal Transformations: Imperialism, Colonialism, and World War I
Authoritarian Systems
Governed by monarchies, parliaments, and military presence in everyday life. Characterized by ethnic and cultural diversity, populations had very few rights.
Liberal Systems
In liberal systems, the separation of powers was strengthened, and new rights were recognized. Suffrage was gradually extended until universal male suffrage was achieved. As workers could vote, socialist parties began to be represented in parliament.
Russian Government and Emperor
The Russian government and
Read MoreAncient India’s Thriving Trade and Banking Systems
Trade and Commerce in Ancient India
Harappan Civilization Trade (c. 2600–1900 BCE)
The Harappan civilization (c. 2600–1900 BCE) had a well-developed trade system, both internal and external. Its economy was based on agriculture, handicrafts, and trade.
Key Aspects of Harappan Trade:
- Internal Trade: The Harappans traded goods between cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and Lothal. Major goods included cotton, beads, terracotta, and pottery.
- External Trade: Harappans had trade links with Mesopotamia,
World War II: Origins, Conflicts, and Global Impact
World War II: Background and Precursors
Geopolitical Context and Early Aggression
- Germany: Re-militarization, rearmament, and withdrawal from the League of Nations.
- Italy: Conquest of Ethiopia.
- Japan: Invasion of China.
The indecisive politics of democracies, debilitated by the League of Nations, allowed fascist states to consolidate power. In 1936, the Rome-Berlin Axis was signed, solidifying their alliance.
Steps Towards War
- Pact of Steel: Alliance between Italy and Germany.
- German-Soviet Non-Aggression
English Language Evolution: Sound and Grammar Shifts
Consonant Changes in English
Loss of ‘W’ after ‘S’ or ‘T’
When a consonant (s or t) was followed by w and a back vowel, the w was lost. Examples: OE: twa, ME: ta, ModE: to.
In Old English times, w had also been lost in negatives: we + wille → nille.
Silent w in Modern English examples: two, sword, answer.
Loss of ‘CH’ in Unstressed Syllables
The ‘ch’ sound was lost in unstressed syllables. Examples: OE: -lic/-liche, ME: -ly, ModE: -ly (e.g., quickly, softly).
Loss of ‘V’ Before a Consonant
The ‘v’ sound
Indigenous Agency: Shaping Spanish Colonial Rule in Latin America
It is tempting to assume that Indigenous intermediaries were no longer needed. According to this view, conquests were complete, and new colonial control solidified—leaving no space for native power. However, this ignores the evolving role Indigenous go-betweens continued to play. The empire was not self-sustaining; it was fragile, fragmented, and dependent on Indigenous cooperation. This essay argues that Indigenous agency not only persisted but was central to the colonial order—in law, diplomacy,
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