Unification of Italy and Germany & 19th-Century Spain
Italian and German Unification (Mid-19th Century)
Until the mid-19th century, modern-day Italy and Germany were divided into numerous independent states. However, nationalist movements emerged in both regions during the first half of the 19th century. As a result of their efforts, these states were unified to form two new nation-states.
Italian Unification
The unification process, known as the Risorgimento, was initiated by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in 1859. After gaining support from France,
Read MoreThe Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814)
The Crisis of 1808: War of Independence and Political Revolution
During the reign of Charles IV (1788-1808), Spanish foreign policy with regard to France ranged from outright rejection to alliance. During the French Revolution, the hostility served to isolate and protect Spain from revolutionary influence. Spain even guillotined the French king to declare war on France, resulting in the occupation of part of Catalonia and the Basque Country. Peace came in 1795 (Santo Domingo ceded to France). Then
Read MoreSpain’s Second Republic: From Inception to Civil War
The Fall of Alfonso XIII and the Rise of the Second Republic
Key events:
- End of the Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera.
- Municipal elections with a victory for the left.
- The King left the country amid fears of civil war.
- Proclamation of the Republic (April 14).
- Constitution of 1931: Single Chamber, universal suffrage, regionalism, state secularism.
The Constitution of 1931
The first task of the deputies was drafting a new constitution, having elected moderate socialist Julián Besteiro as chamber president.
Read MoreThe Moroccan Issue and Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
The Problem of Morocco
In July 1921, during a campaign aimed at extending Spanish control around Melilla, the Spanish suffered a major defeat at Annual. The Spanish Rif attacked, resulting in widespread losses throughout the occupied territory. The conflict’s unpopularity led the media to blame the government and the army. The army withdrew from the political class. The report made by General Picasso (file name unknown) caused great debates in the courts and was opposed by the army. Republicans demanded
Read MoreSpain’s Transition to Democracy & Autonomy
Political Reform in Spain
Political Reform: A segment of Franco’s successors, known as the “immobile,” resisted change, resorting to police repression or the actions of paramilitary groups. However, the “reformers” pushed for a transition within the existing legal framework. On June 30, 1976, Arias Navarro was compelled to resign. Adolfo Suarez, who aligned with the Crown’s objectives, replaced him. Suarez initiated a new political approach, establishing contacts with the opposition. He also introduced
Read MoreUnderstanding Fascism: Ideology and Social Roots
Ideology and Social Bases of Fascism
Fascism had well-defined characteristics:
- It guarded the totalitarian state, establishing control over all areas of life. It advocated for the primacy of the state over the individual and the denial of liberal principles, such as equality of citizens, individual rights, and the separation of powers.
- It supported a single, dictatorial political party. It was sustained by the leadership principle, entrusted to a chief endowed with charismatic power. Fascism was seated