Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship: Causes, Actions, and Impact
In 1917, several issues contributed to the dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera, including the Moroccan War and a political crisis. Primo de Rivera was appointed chairman in 1922. On September 13, 1923, ministers declared a state of war directed towards Madrid and demanded the resignation of King Alfonso XIII’s cabinet.
Primo de Rivera’s ideas were outlined in the Primo Manifesto, which aimed to cleanse the country of corrupt leaders, strikes, and threats. Alfonso XIII was accused of abetting the
Read MoreHagia Sophia: History, Architecture, and Byzantine Legacy
Hagia Sophia (532-537)
The rapid construction of Hagia Sophia can be attributed to substantial financial resources and an innovative building system. Byzantine masons employed alternating courses of brick and mortar beds. Porous tiles were used to reduce the dome’s weight, and marble was imported from all provinces to enhance the monument’s prestige.
Architects and Design
The architects of Hagia Sophia were Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, renowned geometers, mathematicians, and inventors
Read MoreHenry II & Becket: Church-Crown Conflict in Medieval England
Church vs. Crown: Henry II and Thomas Becket
Roger of Hoveden, Chronicle (c. 1201)
To his most loving father and lord…During the Nativity of our Lord…And inasmuch as…
Chronicle is the most important work of the 12th-century English chronicler Roger of Hoveden (Howden).
Henry II, who came to the throne in 1154, was the leader of a great empire. In 1150, he had become Duke of Normandy. In 1151, he became nobleman of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine. In 1152, Eleanor of Aquitaine, Queen of Louis VII of
Read MoreLeague of Nations, NEP, Five-Year Plan, Treaties, and Russian Revolution
League of Nations (SDN)
The League of Nations was an international organization created by the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919. It aimed to establish the foundations for peace and reorganize international relations after World War I. The Covenant of the League of Nations was drafted in the first sessions of the Paris Peace Conference by President Woodrow Wilson (USA). After World War II, it was dissolved in April 1946 and succeeded by the United Nations (UN).
New Economic Policy (NEP)
The New Economic
Read MoreSpain’s Crisis of 1917-1923: Collapse of Restoration
The Crisis of the Restoration (1917-1923)
During the last years of Alfonso XIII’s reign, the political and social foundations of the Restoration were weakening. The deterioration of the political system (discredited turn-taking parties and growing opposition) and social conflict (increased union activity) became increasingly evident.
The Crisis of 1917
In 1917, a crisis broke out—military, political, and social—that marked the beginning of the end for the Restoration. Its decomposition would ultimately
Read MoreSpain’s Turbulent 19th Century: From Civil War to Republic
Isabella II’s Reign and the Rise of Liberalism
Isabel’s mother, Maria Christina, served as regent and sought the support of the Liberals to secure her daughter’s throne. This alliance ignited a civil war (1833-1840) between the absolutist Carlists and the liberal Isabellines. The Carlists, representing the agrarian nobility, clergy, and peasantry of northeastern Spain, defended the Old Regime. The Isabellines, comprised of the bourgeoisie, peasantry, and urban classes of the center and south of the
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